Understanding the Nordic Gender Diversity Paradox

Act on Equal Status and Equal Rights of Women and Men, no. 10/2008, Act of Parliament, Ministry of Welfare, Iceland, 26.2.2008. Search in Google Scholar

Andreassen, J. & Folkenborg, K. (2002), Vi vil! Slipp oss til! FAFO Rapport, 318. Search in Google Scholar

Aronsson, P. (2010), ‘Uses of the past: Nordic historical cultures in a comparative perspective,’ Culture Unbound: Journal of Current Cultural Research, vol. 2, no. 5, pp. 553–563. https://doi.org/10.3384/cu.2000.1525.1023255310.3384/cu.2000.1525.10232553 Search in Google Scholar

Bertrand, M.; Black, S. E.; Jensen, S. & Lleras-Muney, A. (2015), Breaking the Glass Ceiling: The Effect of Board Quotas on Female Labor Market Outcomes in Norway, NBER Working Paper, no. 20256. Search in Google Scholar

Billing, Y. D. & Alvesson, M. (1989), ‘Four ways of looking at women and leadership,’ Scandinavian Journal of Management, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 63–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/0956-5221(89)90006-710.1016/0956-5221(89)90006-7 Search in Google Scholar

Bolzendahl, C. I. & Myers, D. J. (2004), ‘Feminist attitudes and support for gender equality: opinion change in women and men, 1974–1988,’ Social Forces, vol. 83, no. 2, pp. 759–790. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2005.000510.1353/sof.2005.0005 Search in Google Scholar

Campbell, K. & Mínguez-Vera, A. (2008), ‘Gender diversity in the boardroom and firm financial performance,’ Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 83, no. 3, pp. 435–451. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-007-9630-y10.1007/s10551-007-9630-y Search in Google Scholar

Carter, D. A.; Simkins, B. J. & Simpson, W. G. (2003), ‘Corporate governance, board diversity, and firm value,’ Financial Review, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6288.0003410.1111/1540-6288.00034 Search in Google Scholar

Centre for Gender Equality (2012), Gender Equality Iceland: Information on Gender Equality Issues in Iceland, The Centre for Gender Equality Iceland, Akureyri, Iceland. Search in Google Scholar

Cheung, H. Y. & Chan, A. W. (2007), ‘How culture affects female inequality across countries: an empirical study,’ Journal of Studies in International Education, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 157–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/102831530629153810.1177/1028315306291538 Search in Google Scholar

Chin, J. L. (2010), ‘Introduction to the special issue on diversity and leadership,’ American Psychologist, vol. 65, no. 3, p. 150. https://doi.org/10.1037/a001871610.1037/a0018716 Search in Google Scholar

Cialdini, R. B. & Goldstein, N. J. (2004), ‘Social influence: compliance and conformity,’ Annu. Rev. Psychol., vol. 55, pp. 591–621.10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142015 Search in Google Scholar

Cialdini, R. B.; Kallgren, C. A. & Reno, R. R. (1991), ‘A focus theory of normative conduct: a theoretical refinement and reevaluation of the role of norms in human behavior,’ Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 24, pp. 201–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60330-510.1016/S0065-2601(08)60330-5 Search in Google Scholar

Cialdini, R. B. & Trost, M. R. (1998), ‘Social influence: social norms, conformity and compliance,’ in D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (eds.) The Handbook of Social Psychology, Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, pp. 151–192. Search in Google Scholar

Feldman, D. C. (1984), ‘The development and enforcement of group norms,’ Academy of Management Review, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 47–53. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1984.427793410.5465/amr.1984.4277934 Search in Google Scholar

Fuertes, J. N.; Miville, M. L.; Mohr, J. J.; Sedlacek, W. E. & Gretchen, D. (2000), ‘Factor structure and short form of the Miville-Guzman University-Diversity Scale,’ Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, vol. 33, pp. 157–169.10.1080/07481756.2000.12069007 Search in Google Scholar

Fulton, D. C.; Manfredo, M. J. & Lipscomb, J. (1996), ‘Wildlife value orientations: a conceptual and measurement approach,’ Human Dimensions of Wildlife, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 24–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/1087120960935906010.1080/10871209609359060 Search in Google Scholar

GGG (2016), Global Gender Gap Report 2016, World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland. Search in Google Scholar

Grunert, S. C. & Juhl, H. J. (1995), ‘Values, environmental attitudes, and buying of organic foods,’ Journal of Economic Psychology, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 39–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-4870(94)00034-810.1016/0167-4870(94)00034-8 Search in Google Scholar

Halrynjo, S.; Teigen, M. & Nadim, M. (2015), ‘Kvinner og menn i toppledelsen: ringvirkninger av lovkrav om kjønnsbalanse i bedriftsstyrer?’ in Virkninger av kjønnskvotering i norsk næringsliv, Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk. Search in Google Scholar

Hardford, J. (2005), ‘The movement for the higher education of women in Ireland: gender equality or denominational rivalry?’ History of Education, vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 497–516. https://doi.org/10.1080/0046760050022071310.1080/00467600500220713 Search in Google Scholar

Hofstede, G., ed. (1998), Masculinity and Femininity: The Taboo Dimension of National Cultures, Cross-Cultural Psychology Series, vol. 3, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Search in Google Scholar

Hofstede, G. (n.d.), ‘National cultural dimensions.’ Retrieved from https://geert-hofstede.com [accessed Mar 2020] Search in Google Scholar

Homer, P. M. & Kahle, L. R. (1988), ‘A structural equation test of the value- attitude-behavior hierarchy,’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 54, no. 4, p. 638. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.4.63810.1037/0022-3514.54.4.638 Search in Google Scholar

ILO (2015), Women in Business and Management Global Report 2015, International Labour Organization. Search in Google Scholar

Matsa, D. A. & Miller, A. R. (2013), ‘A female style in corporate leadership? Evidence from quotas,’ American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 136–169. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.5.3.13610.1257/app.5.3.136 Search in Google Scholar

McCarty, J. A. & Shrum, L. J. (1994), ‘The recycling of solid wastes: personal values, value orientations, and attitudes about recycling as antecedents of recycling behavior,’ Journal of Business Research, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-2963(94)90068-X10.1016/0148-2963(94)90068-X Search in Google Scholar

McClelland, D. C. (1985), Human Motivation, Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. Search in Google Scholar

Miville, M. L. (1992), Measuring and Defining Universal Orientation, Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Maryland at College Park. Search in Google Scholar

Miville, M. L.; Gelso, C. G.; Pannu, R.; Liu, W.; Touradji, P.; Holloway, P. & Fuertes, J. N. (1999), ‘Appreciating similarities and valuing differences: the Miville-Guzman Universality-Diversity Scale,’ Journal of Counseling Psychology, vol. 46, pp. 291–307.10.1037/0022-0167.46.3.291 Search in Google Scholar

Noon, M. (2007), ‘The fatal flaws of diversity and the business case for ethnic minorities,’ Work, Employment & Society, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 773–784. https://doi.org/10.1177/095001700708288610.1177/0950017007082886 Search in Google Scholar

Nordlund, A. M. & Garvill, J. (2002), ‘Value structures behind pro- environmental behavior,’ Environment and Behavior, vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 740–756. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139160223724410.1177/001391602237244 Search in Google Scholar

NOU 2012:15 (2012), Politikk for likestilling, Norges Offentlige Utredninger, Departementenes servicesenter, Informasjonsforvaltning, Oslo, 25.9.2012. Search in Google Scholar

Olsen, J. E. (2015), ‘Societal values and individual values in reward allocation preferences,’ Cross Cultural Management, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 187–200. https://doi.org/10.1108/CCM-09-2013-013010.1108/CCM-09-2013-0130 Search in Google Scholar

Rafnsdottir, G. L.; Aelsdottir, L.; Didriksdottir, S. & Einarsdottir, Th. (2015), Women and Men as Business Leaders in Iceland, University of Iceland School of Social Sciences. http://mark.hi.is/sites/mark.hi.is/files/women_and_men_as_business_leaders_in_iceland_28032016_ensk_vef.pdf [accessed Mar 2020] Search in Google Scholar

Sagiv, L. & Schwartz, S. H. (2002), Values, Intelligence and Client Behavior in Career Counseling: A Field Study, Manuscript submitted for publication. Search in Google Scholar

Sawyerr, O. O.; Strauss, J. & Yan, J. (2005), ‘Individual value structure and diversity attitudes: the moderating effects of age, gender, race, and religiosity,’ Journal of Managerial Psychology, vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 498–521.10.1108/02683940510615442 Search in Google Scholar

Schwartz, S. H. (2012), ‘An overview of the Schwartz theory of basic values,’ Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, vol. 2, no. 1, p. 11. https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.111610.9707/2307-0919.1116 Search in Google Scholar

Schwartz, S. H. (2017), ‘The refined theory of basic values,’ in S. Roccas & L. Sagiv (eds.) Values and Behavior: Taking a Cross-cultural Perspective, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 51–72.10.1007/978-3-319-56352-7_3 Search in Google Scholar

Seierstad, C. & Opsahl, T. (2011), ‘For the few not the many? The effects of affirmative action on presence, prominence, and social capital of women directors in Norway,’ Scandinavian Journal of Management, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 44–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scaman.2010.10.00210.1016/j.scaman.2010.10.002 Search in Google Scholar

Snorrason, J. S. (2012), ‘Yfirlit um stöđu og áhrif jafnari kynjahlutfalla viđ stjórnun og í stjórnum fyrirtækja,’ Stjórnmál og Stjórnsýsla, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 93–107. https://doi.org/10.13177/irpa.a.2012.8.1.410.13177/irpa.a.2012.8.1.4 Search in Google Scholar

Statistics Iceland (2016), Hlutfall kvenna í stjórnum stórra fyrirtækja stendur í stađ milli ára 6.5.2016. Retrieved from https://hagstofa.is/utgafur/frettasafn/fyrirtaeki/stjornir-og-framkvaemdastjorar-fyrirtaekja/ [accessed Mar 2020] Search in Google Scholar

Sund, B. (2015), ‘Just an illusion of equality? The gender diversity paradox in Norway,’ Beta, vol. 29, no. 02, pp. 157–183.10.18261/ISSN1504-3134-2015-02-04 Search in Google Scholar

Terjesen, S.; Aguilera, R. V. & Lorenz, R. (2015), ‘Legislating a woman’s seat on the board: institutional factors driving gender quotas for boards of directors,’ Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 128, no. 2, pp. 233–251. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2083-110.1007/s10551-014-2083-1 Search in Google Scholar

Warner-Soderholm, G. (2010), Understanding Perceptions of Cultural and Intracultural Societal Practices and Values of Norwegian Managers, PhD dissertation, University of Reading. Search in Google Scholar

Wright, P.; Ferris, S. P.; Hiller, J. S. & Kroll, M. (1995), ‘Competitiveness through management of diversity: effects on stock price valuation,’ Academy of Management Journal, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 272–287. https://doi.org/10.2307/25673610.2307/256736 Search in Google Scholar

Wu, M. (2006), ‘Hofstede’s cultural dimensions 30 years later: a study of Taiwan and the United States,’ Intercultural Communication Studies, vol. 15, no. 1, p. 33. Search in Google Scholar

Zillman, C. (2016), ‘The tiny nation of Iceland is crushing the U.S. in electing female politicians,’ Fortune, 31 October. Retrieved from http://fortune.com/2016/10/31/iceland-us-women-in-parliament-congress [accessed Mar 2020] Search in Google Scholar