This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Billon M., Marco R., Lera-Lopez F., 2009. Disparities in ICT adoption: A multidimensional approach to study the cross-country digital divide. Telecommunications Policy 33(10-11): 596–610.BillonM.MarcoR.Lera-LopezF.,2009.Disparities in ICT adoption: A multidimensional approach to study the cross-country digital divide.Telecommunications Policy33(10-11):596–610.Search in Google Scholar
Bory P., Benecchi E., Balbi G., 2016. How the Web was told: Continuity and change in the founding fathers’ narratives on the origins of the World Wide Web. New Media & Society 18(7): 1066–1087.BoryP.BenecchiE.BalbiG.,2016.How the Web was told: Continuity and change in the founding fathers’ narratives on the origins of the World Wide Web.New Media & Society18(7):1066–1087.Search in Google Scholar
Correa T., Pavez I., Contreras J., 2020. Digital inclusion through mobile phones? A comparison between mobile-only and computer users in internet access, skills and use. Information, Communication & Society 23(7): 1074–1091.CorreaT.PavezI.ContrerasJ.,2020.Digital inclusion through mobile phones? A comparison between mobile-only and computer users in internet access, skills and use.Information, Communication & Society23(7):1074–1091.Search in Google Scholar
Dewan S., Kraemer K.L., 2000. Information technology and productivity: Preliminary evidence from country-level data. Management Science 46(4): 548–562.DewanS.KraemerK.L.,2000.Information technology and productivity: Preliminary evidence from country-level data.Management Science46(4):548–562.Search in Google Scholar
DiMaggio P., Hargittai E., 2001. From the ‘digital divide’ to ‘digital inequality’: Studying Internet use as penetration increases. Princeton: Center for Arts and Cultural Policy Studies, Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University 4(1): 4–2.DiMaggioP.HargittaiE.,2001.From the ‘digital divide’ to ‘digital inequality’: Studying Internet use as penetration increases.Princeton: Center for Arts and Cultural Policy Studies, Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University4(1):4–2.Search in Google Scholar
DiMaggio P., Bonikowski B., 2008. Make money surfing the web? The impact of Internet use on the earnings of US workers. American Sociological Review 73(2): 227–250.DiMaggioP.BonikowskiB.,2008.Make money surfing the web? The impact of Internet use on the earnings of US workers.American Sociological Review73(2):227–250.Search in Google Scholar
EU, 2018. Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) 2018. European Commission, Brussels.EU,2018.Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) 2018.European Commission,Brussels.Search in Google Scholar
EU, 2021. Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) 2021, Methodological Note: European Commission, Brussels.EU,2021.Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) 2021, Methodological Note:European Commission,Brussels.Search in Google Scholar
Eurostat, 2019. Digital economy and society glossarby. Eurostat Statistics explained. Online: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Glossary:Digital_divide (accessed June 2022).Eurostat,2019.Digital economy and society glossarby. Eurostat Statistics explained.Online: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Glossary:Digital_divide(accessed June 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Gonzales A., 2016. The contemporary US digital divide: From initial access to technology maintenance. Information, Communication & Society 19(2): 234–248.GonzalesA.,2016.The contemporary US digital divide: From initial access to technology maintenance.Information, Communication & Society19(2):234–248.Search in Google Scholar
Graham S., 2002. Bridging urban digital divides? Urban polarisation and information and communications technologies (ICTs). Urban Studies 39(1): 33–56.GrahamS.,2002.Bridging urban digital divides? Urban polarisation and information and communications technologies (ICTs).Urban Studies39(1):33–56.Search in Google Scholar
Grishchenko N., 2020. The gap not only closes: Resistance and reverse shifts in the digital divide in Russia. Telecommunications Policy 44(8): 102004.GrishchenkoN.,2020.The gap not only closes: Resistance and reverse shifts in the digital divide in Russia.Telecommunications Policy44(8):102004.Search in Google Scholar
Guz T., 2019. Information and communication technologies development index: Regional analysis of Turkey. Journal of Management Marketing and Logistics 6(3): 128–135.GuzT.,2019.Information and communication technologies development index: Regional analysis of Turkey.Journal of Management Marketing and Logistics6(3):128–135.Search in Google Scholar
Holley L.M., 2005. Bridging the global digital divide. Information Technology for Development 11(2): 199–202.HolleyL.M.,2005.Bridging the global digital divide.Information Technology for Development11(2):199–202.Search in Google Scholar
ITU, 2009. Measuring the Information Society Report – The ICT Development Index. Geneva.ITU,2009.Measuring the Information Society Report – The ICT Development Index.Geneva.Search in Google Scholar
ITU, 2017. Measuring the Information Society Report. International Telecommunication Union, Geneva.ITU,2017.Measuring the Information Society Report.International Telecommunication Union,Geneva.Search in Google Scholar
Jackson K., 2018. A brief history of the smartphone: How much do you know about how smartphones evolved? Online: https://sciencenode.org/feature/How%20did%20smart-phones%20evolve.php (accessed January 2022).JacksonK.,2018.A brief history of the smartphone: How much do you know about how smartphones evolved?Online: https://sciencenode.org/feature/How%20did%20smart-phones%20evolve.php(accessed January 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Kling R., 2000. Social informatics: A new perspective on social research about information and communication technologies. Prometheus: Critical Studies in Innovation 18(3): 245–264.KlingR.,2000.Social informatics: A new perspective on social research about information and communication technologies.Prometheus: Critical Studies in Innovation18(3):245–264.Search in Google Scholar
Koramaz T.K., Nasrollahzade S., Ozdemir Z., 2019. Spatial pattern of digital divide in Turkey. Proceedings of REAL CORP: 685–691.KoramazT.K.NasrollahzadeS.OzdemirZ.,2019.Spatial pattern of digital divide in Turkey.Proceedings of REAL CORP:685–691.Search in Google Scholar
Lythreatis S., Kumar Singh S., El-Kassar A.-N., 2022. The digital divide: A review and future research agenda. Technological Forecasting & Social Change 175(121359): 1–11.LythreatisS.Kumar SinghS.El-KassarA.-N.,2022.The digital divide: A review and future research agenda.Technological Forecasting & Social Change175(121359):1–11.Search in Google Scholar
Ministry of National Education (MEB), 2020. National Education Statistics, Formal Education. Online: https://www.meb.gov.tr/turkiye-uzaktan-egitim-istatistikleriyle-dijital-dunyanin-listelerini-zorladi/haber/21158/tr (accessed June 2020)Ministry of National Education (MEB),2020.National Education Statistics, Formal Education.Online: https://www.meb.gov.tr/turkiye-uzaktan-egitim-istatistikleriyle-dijital-dunyanin-listelerini-zorladi/haber/21158/tr(accessed June 2020)Search in Google Scholar
NTIA, 1995. Falling through the net: A survey of the “Have Nots” in rural and urban America. Online: https://www.ntia.gov/page/falling-through-net-survey-have-nots-rural-and-urban-america (accessed March 2021).NTIA,1995.Falling through the net: A survey of the “Have Nots” in rural and urban America.Online: https://www.ntia.gov/page/falling-through-net-survey-have-nots-rural-and-urban-america(accessed March 2021).Search in Google Scholar
NTIA, 1999. Falling through the net: Defining the digital divide. Online: https://www.ntia.gov/report/1999/falling-through-net-defining-digital-divide (accessed March 2021).NTIA,1999.Falling through the net: Defining the digital divide.Online: https://www.ntia.gov/report/1999/falling-through-net-defining-digital-divide(accessed March 2021).Search in Google Scholar
OECD, 2020a. Learning remotely when schools close: How well are students and schools prepared? Insights from PISA. Online: https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/view/?ref=127_127063-iiwm328658&title=Learning-remotely-when-schools-close (accessed January 2020).OECD,2020a.Learning remotely when schools close: How well are students and schools prepared? Insights from PISA.Online: https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/view/?ref=127_127063-iiwm328658&title=Learning-remotely-when-schools-close(accessed January 2020).Search in Google Scholar
OECD, 2020b. OECD regions and cities at a glance 2020. OECD Publishing, Paris.OECD,2020b.OECD regions and cities at a glance 2020.OECD Publishing,Paris.Search in Google Scholar
OECD, 2020c. Digitalization and innovation. Online: https://www.oecd.org/g20/topics/digitalisation-and-innovation/ (accessed January 2022).OECD,2020c.Digitalization and innovation.Online: https://www.oecd.org/g20/topics/digitalisation-and-innovation/(accessed January 2022).Search in Google Scholar
OECD, 2021a. Going Digital Toolkit. Online: https://going-digital.oecd.org (accessed March 2022).OECD,2021a.Going Digital Toolkit.Online: https://going-digital.oecd.org(accessed March 2022).Search in Google Scholar
OECD, 2021b. OECD Employment Outlook 2021: Navigating the COVID-19 Crisis and Recovery. OECD Publishing, Paris.OECD,2021b.OECD Employment Outlook 2021: Navigating the COVID-19 Crisis and Recovery.OECD Publishing,Paris.Search in Google Scholar
OECD, 2021c. SME digitalisation to “Build Back Better”: Digital for SMEs (D4SME) policy paper. OECD SME and Entrepreneurship Papers 31.OECD,2021c.SME digitalisation to “Build Back Better”: Digital for SMEs (D4SME) policy paper.OECD SME and Entrepreneurship Papers 31.Search in Google Scholar
Ozcan Alp G., Baycan T., 2024. Digital divide reflections on regional development disparities in Türkiye. Information technology for development [forthcoming].Ozcan AlpG.BaycanT.,2024.Digital divide reflections on regional development disparities in Türkiye.Information technology for development[forthcoming].Search in Google Scholar
Singer H.W., 1970. Dualism revisited: A new approach to the problems of the dual society in developing countries. The Journal of Development Studies 7(1): 60–75.SingerH.W.,1970.Dualism revisited: A new approach to the problems of the dual society in developing countries.The Journal of Development Studies7(1):60–75.Search in Google Scholar
Scheerder A., van Deursen A., van Dijk J., 2017. Determinants of Internet skills, uses and outcomes. A systematic review of the second- and third-level digital divide. Telematics and Informatics 34: 1607–1624.ScheerderA.van DeursenA.van DijkJ.,2017.Determinants of Internet skills, uses and outcomes. A systematic review of the second- and third-level digital divide.Telematics and Informatics34:1607–1624.Search in Google Scholar
Scopus, 2022. Analyze search results. Online: https://www. scopus.com/term/analyzer.uri?sid=260c224b124ac5d-9fa2fbdafac541b42&origin=resultslist&src=s&s=TITLE-ABS-KEY%28”digital+divide”%29&sort=cp-f&s-dt=b&sot=b&sl=31&count=7896&analyzeResults=Analyze+results&txGid=c05d73322890896fbfd775055141eff5 (accessed January 2022).Scopus,2022.Analyze search results.Online: https://www.scopus.com/term/analyzer.uri?sid=260c224b124ac5d-9fa2fbdafac541b42&origin=resultslist&src=s&s=TITLE-ABS-KEY%28”digital+divide”%29&sort=cp-f&s-dt=b&sot=b&sl=31&count=7896&analyzeResults=Analyze+results&txGid=c05d73322890896fbfd775055141eff5(accessed January 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Shakina E., Parshakov P., Alsufiev A., 2021. Rethinking the corporate digital divide: The complementarity of technologies and the demand for digital skills. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 162 (120405): 1–16.ShakinaE.ParshakovP.AlsufievA.,2021.Rethinking the corporate digital divide: The complementarity of technologies and the demand for digital skills.Technological Forecasting and Social Change162(120405):1–16.Search in Google Scholar
Statista, 2021. https://www.statista.com. Online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide/ (accessed January 2022).Statista,2021.https://www.statista.com. Online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide/(accessed January 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Statista, 2022. Global digital population worldwide. Online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide/ (accessed January 2022).Statista,2022.Global digital population worldwide.Online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide/(accessed January 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Stump R., Gong W., Li Z., 2008. Exploring the digital divide in mobile-phone adoption levels across countries: Do population socioeconomic traits operate in the same manner as their individual-level demographic counter-parts? Journal of Macromarketing 28(4): 397–412.StumpR.GongW.LiZ.,2008.Exploring the digital divide in mobile-phone adoption levels across countries: Do population socioeconomic traits operate in the same manner as their individual-level demographic counter-parts?Journal of Macromarketing28(4):397–412.Search in Google Scholar
Szeles M.R., 2018. New insights from a multilevel approach to the regional digital divide in the European Union. Telecommunications Policy 42(6): 452–463.SzelesM.R.,2018.New insights from a multilevel approach to the regional digital divide in the European Union.Telecommunications Policy42(6):452–463.Search in Google Scholar
Supporting Research, Development and Design Activities, 2008. Law No. 5746. Online: https://www.resmigazete. gov.tr/eskiler/2016/08/20160810-7.htm (accessed January 2022).Supporting Research, Development and Design Activities,2008.Law No. 5746Online: https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2016/08/20160810-7.htm(accessed January 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Technology Development Zones, 2001. Law No. 4691. Online: https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2014/03/20140312-2.htm (accessed January 2022).Technology Development Zones,2001.Law No. 4691Online: https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2014/03/20140312-2.htm(accessed January 2022).Search in Google Scholar
The World Bank, 2020. Urban Development Home. Online: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/overview#1 (accessed January 2022).The World Bank,2020.Urban Development Home.Online: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/overview#1(accessed January 2022).Search in Google Scholar
The World Bank, UNESCO, UNICEF, 2021. The state of the global education crisis: A path to recovery. The World Bank, UNESCO, and UNICEF, Washington D.C., Paris, New York.The World Bank, UNESCO, UNICEF,2021.The state of the global education crisis: A path to recovery.The World Bank, UNESCO, and UNICEF,Washington D.C., Paris, New York.Search in Google Scholar
TurkStat, 2021. Hanehalki Bilişim Teknolojileri (BT) Kullanim Araştirmasi (Survey on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) usage in households and by individuals). Online: https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index-?p=Hanehalki-Bilisim-Teknolojileri-(BT)-Kullanim-Arastirmasi-2021-37437 (accessed 2022 March).TurkStat,2021.Hanehalki Bilişim Teknolojileri (BT) Kullanim Araştirmasi(Survey on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) usage in households and by individuals). Online: https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index-?p=Hanehalki-Bilisim-Teknolojileri-(BT)-Kullanim-Arastirmasi-2021-37437(accessed 2022 March).Search in Google Scholar
UN, 2015. The 17 Sustainable Development Goals. Online: https://sdgs.un.org/goals (accessed September 2021).UN,2015.The 17 Sustainable Development Goals.Online: https://sdgs.un.org/goals(accessed September 2021).Search in Google Scholar
van Deursen A.J., van Dijk J.A., 2018. The first-level digital divide shifts from inequalities in physical access to inequalities in material access. New Media & Society, September, 2019(21(2)):354–375.van DeursenA.J.van DijkJ.A.,2018.The first-level digital divide shifts from inequalities in physical access to inequalities in material access.New Media & Society,September,2019(21(2)):354–375.Search in Google Scholar
van Deursen A.J., Helsper E.J., 2015. The third-level digital divide: Who benefits most from being online? Communication and Information Technologies Annual: Digital Distinctions and Inequalities Studies in Media and Communications 10: 29–53.van DeursenA.J.HelsperE.J.,2015.The third-level digital divide: Who benefits most from being online?Communication and Information Technologies Annual: Digital Distinctions and Inequalities Studies in Media and Communications10:29–53.Search in Google Scholar
van Dijk J.A., 2020. Closing the digital divide: The role of digital technologies on social development, well-being of all and the approach of the COVID-19 pandemic. Virtual Expert Group UN Meeting on Socially just transition towards sustainable development: The role of digital technologies on social development and well-being of all.van DijkJ.A.,2020.Closing the digital divide: The role of digital technologies on social development, well-being of all and the approach of the COVID-19 pandemic.Virtual Expert Group UN Meeting on Socially just transition towards sustainable development: The role of digital technologies on social development and well-being of all.Search in Google Scholar
van Dijk J.A., 2005. The deepening divide. SAGE, Thousand Oaks.van DijkJ.A.,2005.The deepening divide.SAGE,Thousand Oaks.Search in Google Scholar
Vicente M.R., López A.J., 2011. Assessing the regional digital divide across the European Union-27. Telecommunications Policy 35(3): 220–237.VicenteM.R.LópezA.J.,2011.Assessing the regional digital divide across the European Union-27.Telecommunications Policy35(3):220–237.Search in Google Scholar
Warschauer M., 2003. Technology and social inclusion: Rethinking the digital divide. MIT Press, Cambridge.WarschauerM.,2003.Technology and social inclusion: Rethinking the digital divide.MIT Press,Cambridge.Search in Google Scholar
Warschauer M., 2011. A literacy approach to the digital divide. Cadernos de Letras 28: 5–19.WarschauerM.,2011.A literacy approach to the digital divide.Cadernos de Letras28:5–19.Search in Google Scholar
Wei K.K., Teo H.H., Chan H.C., Tan B.C., 2011. Conceptualizing and testing a social cognitive model of the digital divide. Information Systems Research 22(1): 170–187.WeiK.K.TeoH.H.ChanH.C.TanB.C.,2011.Conceptualizing and testing a social cognitive model of the digital divide.Information Systems Research22(1):170–187.Search in Google Scholar