a) Ghana | ||||||||||
WAVE t = 0 | Wage employed | Formal | 65.1 | 6.9 | 9.6 | 4.3 | 3.6 | 10.6 | 8.6 | |
Informal | Upper | 33.0 | 11.8 | 23.7 | 2.5 | 3.2 | 25.8 | 0.6 | ||
Lower | 21.7 | 5.3 | 32.2 | 7.5 | 6.4 | 26.9 | 6.1 | |||
Self-employed | Formal | 2.1 | 3.4 | 12.1 | 29.5 | 15.8 | 37.1 | 2.6 | ||
Informal | Upper | 4.0 | 2.5 | 15.2 | 14.7 | 44.7 | 18.9 | 5.3 | ||
Lower | 2.1 | 2.0 | 15.8 | 6.8 | 6.3 | 67.2 | 28.1 | |||
TOTAL | 21.0 | 4.5 | 18.4 | 9.1 | 11.2 | 35.8 | 51.3 | |||
b) South Africa | ||||||||||
WAVE t = 0 | Wage employed | Formal | 83.3 | 7.1 | 5.8 | 2.2 | 1.1 | 0.5 | 47.2 | |
Informal | Upper | 50.1 | 25.1 | 14.7 | 6.0 | 1.0 | 3.1 | 2.2 | ||
Lower | 26.4 | 13.1 | 47.7 | 4.7 | 3.9 | 4.3 | 10.2 | |||
Self-employed | Formal | 13.0 | 9.7 | 5.1 | 50.8 | 13.3 | 8.1 | 2.0 | ||
Informal | Upper | 12.2 | 11.1 | 19.5 | 16.1 | 23.5 | 17.6 | 1.3 | ||
Lower | 14.7 | 6.2 | 16.8 | 6.9 | 24.6 | 30.8 | 1.1 | |||
TOTAL | 63.4 | 9.9 | 14.9 | 5.2 | 3.4 | 3.1 | 64.0 | |||
c) Tanzania | ||||||||||
WAVE t = 0 | Wage employed | Formal | 79.7 | 4.4 | 9.7 | 1.5 | 1.0 | 3.6 | 9.3 | |
Informal | Upper | 45.8 | 5.8 | 33.1 | 6.5 | 2.9 | 6.0 | 0.2 | ||
Lower | 14.8 | 0.9 | 62.4 | 2.9 | 3.5 | 15.5 | 17.9 | |||
Self-employed | Formal | 2.0 | 0.0 | 5.0 | 31.7 | 18.2 | 43.1 | 2.9 | ||
Informal | Upper | 4.5 | 0.0 | 21.8 | 15.2 | 23.1 | 35.4 | 0.9 | ||
Lower | 5.8 | 1.5 | 15.3 | 8.3 | 4.1 | 64.9 | 28.2 | |||
TOTAL | 22.2 | 1.8 | 27.3 | 8.6 | 6.0 | 34.2 | 59.3 | |||
d) Uganda | ||||||||||
WAVE t = 0 | Wage employed | Formal | 58.0 | 27.0 | 8.1 | 5.2 | 0.0 | 1.7 | 6.8 | |
Informal | Upper | 20.0 | 48.3 | 14.1 | 5.7 | 6.1 | 5.9 | 5.2 | ||
Lower | 4.7 | 6.2 | 68.3 | 2.7 | 4.3 | 13.9 | 17.7 | |||
Self-employed | Formal | 2.7 | 0.0 | 10.5 | 20.7 | 15.0 | 51.1 | 0.6 | ||
Informal | Upper | 0.0 | 4.6 | 5.0 | 13.9 | 39.8 | 36.8 | 2.3 | ||
Lower | 2.2 | 1.0 | 11.9 | 4.4 | 7.2 | 73.2 | 31.2 | |||
TOTAL | 14.8 | 13.3 | 24.3 | 5.7 | 7.9 | 34.1 | 63.9 |
a) Proportion of employment by work status (incl. family farms and unemployment) | ||||||
Wage employed | Formal | 6.8 | 44.3 | 3.9 | 4.0 | |
Informal | Upper | 2.8 | 7.0 | 1.1 | 3.7 | |
Lower | 9.8 | 16.7 | 9.5 | 8.8 | ||
Self-employed | Formal | 4.6 | 3.1 | 3.0 | 1.1 | |
Informal | Upper | 6.2 | 4.2 | 1.3 | 2.0 | |
Lower | 21.7 | 2.9 | 14.4 | 14.5 | ||
Family farms | 43.4 | 0.9 | 65.5 | 65.0 | ||
Unemployment | 4.8 | 21.0 | 1.3 | 1.0 | ||
TOTAL | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | ||
b) Proportion of formal |
||||||
Formal | 12.0 | 59.9 | 7.0 | 5.1 | ||
Informal | Upper | 9.4 | 14.2 | 2.4 | 5.7 | |
Lower | 78.6 | 25.9 | 90.6 | 89.2 | ||
TOTAL | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
Annual (constant 2017 PPP $) | 4,505 | 12,731 | 2,256 | 2,004 |
Growth rate (annual %) | 4.4 | 0.4 | 3.4 | 1.7 |
Agriculture | 21.9 | 2.2 | 26.6 | 26.2 |
Industry | 28.6 | 26.6 | 25.1 | 25.5 |
Services | 42.8 | 61.1 | 40.6 | 42.0 |
$1.90 a day (2011 PPP) | 12.0 | 17.5 | 49.5 | 38.5 |
$3.20 a day (2011 PPP) | 30.1 | 36.5 | 78.2 | 68.5 |
At least completed primary | 64.7 | 81.4 | 64.8 | 38.4 |
At least completed lower secondary | 54.3 | 74.5 | 11.0 | 26.4 |
At least completed upper secondary | 20.6 | 61.5 | 3.4 | 10.3 |
Agriculture | 41.6 | 5.0 | 68.3 | 70.1 |
Industry | 16.2 | 23.7 | 6.1 | 7.2 |
Services | 42.2 | 71.3 | 25.5 | 22.6 |
Public sector employment as a share of formal employment (%) | 45.4 | 22.7 | 49.8 | 39.5 |
Share of private paid employees with union membership (%) | 17.5 | 20.4 | 9.4 | 3.0 |
Score (0 = lowest performance to 100 = best performance) | 57.8 | 65.7 | 52.5 | 57.3 |
Number of start-up procedures to register a business | 7.6 | 6.5 | 11.3 | 14.0 |
Days required to start a business | 12.9 | 45.3 | 29.5 | 26.8 |
New business density (registrations per 1,000 people ages 15–64) | 1.0 | 7.2 | 0.3 | 0.9 |
Governance quality index (1–10) | 6.5 | 6.1 | 5.2 | 5.7 |
Regulatory performance in paying taxes (1–100) | 66.3 | 81.2 | 53.8 | 73.0 |
Workers’ Rights (1–100) | 79.0 | 86.0 | 71.0 | 70.0 |
a) Proportion of employment by work status | ||||||
Wage employed | Formal | 13.2 | 56.7 | 11.7 | 11.7 | |
Informal | Upper | 5.3 | 8.9 | 3.3 | 10.8 | |
Lower | 18.9 | 21.4 | 28.6 | 26.0 | ||
Self-employed | Formal | 8.9 | 4.0 | 9.1 | 3.1 | |
Informal | Upper | 11.9 | 5.4 | 3.9 | 5.8 | |
Lower | 41.8 | 3.7 | 43.4 | 42.6 | ||
TOTAL | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | ||
b) Proportion of formal |
||||||
Formal | 22.1 | 60.6 | 20.7 | 14.9 | ||
Informal | Upper | 17.2 | 14.3 | 7.2 | 16.6 | |
Lower | 60.7 | 25.1 | 72.0 | 68.6 | ||
TOTAL | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | ||
c) Proportion of upper-tier informality in informal employment | ||||||
Upper informal in total informal employment | 22.1 | 36.4 | 9.1 | 19.4 | ||
Upper informal in informal self-employment | 22.2 | 59.7 | 8.2 | 11.9 | ||
Upper informal in informal wage employment | 22.0 | 29.4 | 10.5 | 29.4 |
Log labor earnings ( |
−0.335 |
−0.334 |
−0.375 |
−0.375 |
Formality status in |
||||
Formal ( |
−0.033 (0.037) | −0.033 (0.035) | 0.018 (0.045) | 0.016 (0.044) |
Upper informal ( |
−0.023 (0.023) | −0.025 (0.024) | 0.016 (0.031) | 0.021 (0.030) |
Formality status in |
||||
Formal ( |
0.337 |
0.330 |
0.240 (0.101) | 0.243 (0.110) |
Formal ( |
0.136 (0.076) | 0.133 (0.073) | 0.014 (0.080) | 0.013 (0.087) |
Upper informal ( |
0.257 |
0.256 |
0.265 |
0.260 |
Upper informal ( |
0.071 (0.057) | 0.070 (0.056) | 0.109 (0.118) | 0.099 (0.121) |
Lower informal ( |
0.206 |
0.206 |
0.211 |
0.212 |
Lower informal ( |
0.082 |
0.095 |
0.067 (0.062) | 0.069 (0.045) |
Employment status in |
||||
Self-employed ( |
0.045 (0.106) | −0.091 |
||
Employment status in |
||||
Self-employed ( |
−0.090 (0.054) | −0.021 (0.041) | ||
Wage employed ( |
0.015 (0.104) | −0.067 (0.087) | ||
Characteristics in |
||||
Level of education (base: No schooling) | ||||
Primary | 0.058 (0.036) | 0.061 (0.031) | 0.076 (0.036) | 0.076 (0.029) |
Post-primary | 0.103 |
0.106 |
0.104 |
0.108 |
Secondary | 0.205 |
0.207 |
0.212 |
0.219 |
Post-secondary | 0.328 |
0.332 |
0.227 |
0.236 |
Tertiary | 0.542 |
0.544 |
0.474 |
0.482 |
Age | 0.005 (0.004) | 0.004 (0.003) | 0.004 (0.009) | 0.003 (0.008) |
Age squared (×0.01) | −0.004 (0.004) | −0.004 (0.004) | −0.002 (0.009) | −0.001 (0.008) |
Female | −0.134 |
−0.135 |
−0.152 (0.082) | −0.157 (0.083) |
Urban | 0.076 |
0.076 |
0.095 (0.064) | 0.100 (0.062) |
Country (base: Uganda) | ||||
South Africa | 0.110 (0.052) | 0.102 (0.067) | ||
Tanzania | 0.073 (0.033) | 0.067 (0.036) | 0.096 (0.094) | 0.097 (0.099) |
Uganda | −0.014 (0.018) | −0.021 (0.023) | 0.013 (0.058) | 0.013 (0.065) |
Sample selection | ||||
Panel retention From |
−0.021 (0.029) | −0.018 (0.024) | −0.136 (0.149) | −0.140 (0.140) |
Employed (non-farm) in |
0.005 (0.010) | 0.005 (0.011) | −0.044 (0.115) | −0.038 (0.114) |
Constant | 1.500 |
1.504 |
1.765 |
1.805 |
Observations | 7,240 | 7,240 | 2,760 | 2,760 |
Adj. R2 | 0.371 | 0.376 | 0.382 | 0.384 |
Ghana | GSPS | Wave I (2009/10) | Wave II (2013/14) |
South Africa | NIDS | Wave IV (2014/15) | Wave V (2017) |
Tanzania | TZNPS | Wave II (2010/11) | Wave III (2012/13) |
Uganda | UNPS | Wave II (2010/11) | Wave III (2011/12) |
Multinomial logistic regression | Number of obs = 9,851 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Average marginal effects on work status in |
Log-likelihood = −12,048 | |||||
Base outcome: Lower-tier informal wage employed | Pseudo R2 = 0.284 | |||||
Work status in |
||||||
(1) Formal wage employed | 0.584 |
0.051 |
−0.002 (0.020) | −0.070 |
−0.052 |
−0.271 |
(2) Upper-tier informal wage employed | 0.264 |
0.168 |
0.084 |
−0.048 |
−0.038 |
−0.210 |
(3) Lower-tier informal wage employed | 0.130 |
0.053 |
0.228 |
−0.054 |
−0.028 |
−0.137 |
(4) Formal self-employed | −0.006 (0.012) | 0.006 (0.013) | −0.022 |
0.195 |
0.051 |
−0.168 |
(5) Upper-tier informal self-employed | 0.008 (0.010) | 0.023 |
0.008 (0.023) | 0.027 |
0.151 |
−0.101 |
Level of education (base: no schooling) | ||||||
Primary | 0.035 |
0.001 (0.007) | −0.065 |
0.018 |
0.002 (0.004) | −0.003 (0.018) |
Post-primary | 0.093 |
0.012 (0.020) | −0.113 |
0.040 |
0.006 (0.005) | −0.021 (0.019) |
Secondary | 0.157 |
0.011 (0.017) | −0.157 |
0.042 |
0.001 (0.009) | −0.036 |
Post-secondary | 0.219 |
0.031 |
−0.204 |
0.082 |
0.005 (0.010) | −0.072 |
Tertiary | 0.329 |
0.013 (0.014) | −0.249 |
0.088 |
−0.009 (0.018) | −0.099 |
Age | 0.015 |
0.002 (0.001) | −0.001 (0.001) | 0.006 |
0.002 (0.002) | −0.030 |
Age squared (×0.01) | −0.018 |
−0.003 (0.002) | −0.001 (0.001) | −0.006 |
−0.003 (0.002) | 0.038 |
Female | −0.050 |
0.016 |
−0.028 |
−0.023 |
−0.019 |
0.078 |
Urban | 0.012 |
−0.022 |
0.015 (0.016) | 0.006 (0.007) | −0.009 |
0.018 (0.013) |
Country (base: Ghana) | ||||||
South Africa | 0.085 |
0.020 |
−0.035 |
−0.020 |
−0.032 |
0.107 |
Tanzania | 0.162 |
−0.021 |
0.030 |
0.026 |
−0.024 |
−0.188 |
Uganda | −0.053 |
0.100 |
0.042 |
−0.009 |
0.016 |
−0.151 |
Sample selection | ||||||
Panel retention From |
−0.037 (0.039) | −0.020 |
−0.033 |
−0.012 (0.009) | −0.015 |
0.031 (0.030) |
Employed (non-farm) in |
−0.034 (0.033) | −0.009 (0.013) | −0.003 (0.022) | 0.001 (0.013) | −0.022 |
0.087 (0.056) |
Multinomial logistic regression | Number of obs = 7,816 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Average marginal effects on work status in |
Log-likelihood = −7,851.1291 | ||||
Base outcome: Lower-tier informal wage employed | Pseudo R2 = 0.3353 | ||||
Work status in |
|||||
(1) Formal wage employed | 0.628 |
0.037 |
−0.066 |
−0.128 |
−0.096 |
(2) Upper-tier informal wage employed | 0.293 |
0.192 |
0.044 (0.033) | −0.099 |
−0.078 |
(3) Lower-tier informal wage employed | 0.153 |
0.062 |
0.264 |
−0.104 |
−0.062 |
(4) Formal self-Employed | −0.045 |
−0.007 (0.023) | −0.079 |
0.227 |
0.043 (0.044) |
(5) Upper-tier informal self-employed | −0.012 (0.024) | 0.028 (0.022) | −0.023 (0.030) | 0.016 (0.014) | 0.201 |
Level of education (base: no schooling) | |||||
Primary | 0.053 |
0.001 (0.009) | −0.089 |
0.023 |
0.001 (0.004) |
Post-primary | 0.121 |
0.011 (0.026) | −0.160 |
0.050 |
0.004 (0.005) |
Secondary | 0.196 |
0.008 (0.022) | −0.223 |
0.052 |
−0.002 (0.012) |
Post-secondary | 0.246 |
0.026 (0.022) | −0.283 |
0.096 |
−0.000 (0.012) |
Tertiary | 0.342 |
−0.001 (0.019) | −0.337 |
0.107 |
−0.016 (0.020) |
Age | 0.003 (0.003) | −0.002 (0.002) | −0.010 |
0.006 (0.004) | 0.000 (0.002) |
Age squared (×0.01) | −0.002 (0.004) | 0.002 (0.003) | 0.009 |
−0.006 (0.005) | −0.001 (0.003) |
Female | −0.037 |
0.029 |
−0.008 (0.011) | −0.021 |
−0.016 |
Urban | 0.029 |
−0.027 |
0.015 (0.018) | 0.007 (0.009) | −0.013 |
Country (base: Ghana) | |||||
South Africa | 0.122 |
0.037 |
0.005 (0.012) | −0.010 (0.006) | −0.020 |
Tanzania | 0.112 |
−0.033 |
−0.019 |
0.017 |
−0.036 |
Uganda | −0.106 |
0.099 |
0.011 (0.007) | −0.018 |
0.007 |
Sample selection | |||||
Panel retention from |
−0.044 |
−0.019 |
−0.026 |
−0.007 (0.011) | −0.009 (0.013) |
Employed (non-farm) in |
0.011 (0.012) | −0.002 (0.021) | 0.010 (0.022) | 0.005 (0.014) | −0.025 |
Variables | ||||||
Employment status (base: Wage employed) | ||||||
Self-employed | −0.036 (0.026) | −0.013 (0.012) | −0.122 |
0.114 |
0.081 |
0.185 |
Level of education (base: no schooling) | ||||||
Primary | 0.033 (0.020) | 0.019 |
0.022 (0.021) | −0.033 (0.035) | −0.034 |
−0.125 |
Post-primary | 0.121 |
0.056 |
0.117 (0.080) | −0.145 (0.109) | −0.069 |
−0.197 |
Secondary | 0.208 |
0.077 |
0.238 |
−0.245 |
−0.092 |
−0.232 |
Post-secondary | 0.281 |
0.084 |
0.328 |
−0.300 |
−0.114 |
−0.263 |
Tertiary | 0.575 |
0.048 |
0.554 |
−0.395 |
−0.133 |
−0.286 |
Age | 0.003 (0.004) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.013 (0.010) | −0.011 (0.009) | −0.004 |
−0.007 |
Age squared (×0.01) | −0.002 (0.004) | −0.001 (0.001) | −0.014 (0.009) | 0.012 (0.009) | 0.004 |
0.006 |
Female | −0.066 |
−0.023 |
−0.014 (0.048) | 0.013 (0.044) | 0.019 |
0.034 |
Urban | 0.021 |
0.007 (0.006) | 0.046 |
−0.042 |
0.001 (0.007) | 0.003 (0.013) |
Country (base: Ghana) | ||||||
South Africa | 0.102 |
0.036 |
0.068 |
−0.061 |
−0.058 |
−0.122 |
Tanzania | 0.038 (0.031) | 0.016 |
0.027 (0.035) | −0.026 (0.033) | −0.049 |
−0.106 |
Uganda | −0.040 |
−0.021 |
−0.080 |
0.090 |
0.013 |
0.045 |
Sample selection | ||||||
Panel retention From |
−0.144 |
−0.049 |
−0.024 (0.044) | 0.021 (0.040) | 0.026 |
0.045 (0.030) |
Employed (non-farm) in |
0.013 (0.023) | 0.004 (0.009) | 0.090 |
−0.082 |
0.025 |
0.043 |
Observations | 2,869 | 1,166 | 3,781 | |||
Pseudo R2 | 0.0728 | 0.0614 | 0.1220 |
a) Ghana | |||||||||||
WAVE t = 0 | Wage employed | Formal | 59.0 | 6.2 | 8.7 | 3.9 | 3.2 | 16.7 | 2.2 | 7.8 | |
Informal | Upper | 25.7 | 9.2 | 18.5 | 2.0 | 2.5 | 40.5 | 1.6 | 0.5 | ||
Lower | 15.5 | 3.8 | 22.9 | 5.4 | 4.5 | 41.2 | 6.8 | 4.3 | |||
Self-employed | Formal | 1.1 | 1.7 | 6.2 | 14.9 | 8.0 | 64.2 | 4.0 | 1.3 | ||
Informal | Upper | 2.2 | 1.3 | 8.2 | 8.0 | 24.2 | 52.4 | 3.8 | 2.9 | ||
Lower | 0.8 | 0.8 | 6.5 | 2.8 | 2.6 | 83.5 | 3.1 | 34.9 | |||
TOTAL | 11.9 | 2.6 | 10.5 | 5.2 | 6.4 | 59.7 | 3.7 | 51.7 | |||
b) South Africa | |||||||||||
WAVE t = 0 | Wage employed | Formal | 78.9 | 6.7 | 5.5 | 2.1 | 1.0 | 0.7 | 5.1 | 44.7 | |
Informal | Upper | 42.0 | 21.0 | 12.4 | 5.0 | 0.9 | 2.7 | 16.1 | 1.9 | ||
Lower | 22.0 | 10.9 | 39.8 | 3.9 | 3.2 | 3.9 | 16.2 | 8.5 | |||
Self-employed | Formal | 10.8 | 8.0 | 4.2 | 42.0 | 11.0 | 8.5 | 15.5 | 1.7 | ||
Informal | Upper | 9.9 | 9.0 | 15.8 | 13.1 | 19.1 | 14.3 | 18.8 | 1.0 | ||
Lower | 10.0 | 4.2 | 11.4 | 4.7 | 16.7 | 21.2 | 31.9 | 0.8 | |||
TOTAL | 56.9 | 8.9 | 13.4 | 4.7 | 3.1 | 3.0 | 10.1 | 58.6 | |||
c) Tanzania | |||||||||||
WAVE t = 0 | Wage employed | Formal | 71.9 | 4.0 | 8.8 | 1.4 | 0.9 | 12.7 | 0.4 | 8.4 | |
Informal | Upper | 40.5 | 5.1 | 29.2 | 5.7 | 2.5 | 15.9 | 1.1 | 0.2 | ||
Lower | 11.1 | 0.7 | 46.7 | 2.2 | 2.6 | 35.9 | 0.8 | 13.4 | |||
Self-employed | Formal | 1.6 | 0.0 | 4.1 | 25.8 | 14.8 | 53.6 | 0.0 | 2.3 | ||
Informal | Upper | 3.8 | 0.0 | 18.5 | 12.9 | 19.6 | 45.2 | 0.0 | 0.8 | ||
Lower | 3.8 | 1.0 | 9.9 | 5.4 | 2.7 | 74.8 | 2.5 | 32.5 | |||
TOTAL | 16.5 | 1.3 | 20.4 | 6.4 | 4.5 | 49.6 | 1.3 | 57.5 | |||
d) Uganda | |||||||||||
WAVE t = 0 | Wage employed | Formal | 57.7 | 26.8 | 8.1 | 5.2 | 0.0 | 2.2 | 0.0 | 6.8 | |
Informal | Upper | 17.8 | 43.1 | 12.6 | 5.1 | 5.5 | 16.0 | 0.0 | 4.7 | ||
Lower | 3.2 | 4.2 | 46.1 | 1.8 | 2.9 | 41.4 | 0.5 | 12.0 | |||
Self-employed | Formal | 2.6 | 0.0 | 10.1 | 19.8 | 14.3 | 53.3 | 0.0 | 0.6 | ||
Informal | Upper | 0.0 | 3.7 | 4.0 | 11.2 | 32.1 | 49.1 | 0.0 | 1.8 | ||
Lower | 1.2 | 0.5 | 6.3 | 2.3 | 3.8 | 85.4 | 0.5 | 36.4 | |||
TOTAL | 10.2 | 9.1 | 16.7 | 3.9 | 5.4 | 54.3 | 0.3 | 62.3 |
a) Average age (years) | ||||||
Wage employed | Formal | 43.5 (0.53) | 37.5 (0.16) | 40.5 (0.52) | 36.1 (0.71) | |
Informal | Upper | 36.4 (0.82) | 35.6 (0.37) | 33.4 (1.00) | 34.7 (0.84) | |
Lower | 38.4 (0.46) | 35.4 (0.25) | 30.3 (0.35) | 30.5 (0.53) | ||
Self-employed | Formal | 41.5 (0.64) | 41.3 (0.72) | 37.5 (0.54) | 34.8 (1.29) | |
Informal | Upper | 40.3 (0.53) | 40.2 (0.54) | 34.7 (0.83) | 38.8 (0.95) | |
Lower | 40.8 (0.29) | 38.6 (0.69) | 31.0 (0.33) | 34.8 (0.47) | ||
TOTAL | 40.5 (0.19) | 37.2 (0.12) | 32.7 (0.20) | 34.1 (0.29) | ||
b) Share of female workers (%) | ||||||
Wage employed | Formal | 33.7 (2.41) | 41.5 (0.75) | 32.5 (2.15) | 41.3 (3.77) | |
Informal | Upper | 30.0 (3.55) | 57.0 (1.65) | 35.5 (4.33) | 34.3 (3.80) | |
Lower | 33.8 (1.91) | 44.3 (1.09) | 34.0 (1.55) | 26.8 (2.12) | ||
Self-employed | Formal | 47.9 (3.24) | 45.8 (3.00) | 36.0 (2.83) | 39.7 (6.60) | |
Informal | Upper | 50.0 (2.67) | 40.3 (2.25) | 25.4 (3.73) | 29.4 (4.25) | |
Lower | 81.7 (1.08) | 58.4 (2.96) | 63.9 (1.31) | 47.9 (1.85) | ||
TOTAL | 56.8 (0.90) | 44.2 (0.55) | 46.7 (0.87) | 38.9 (1.19) | ||
c) Share of workers with secondary or tertiary education (%) | ||||||
Wage employed | Formal | 52.2 (3.02) | 63.7 (0.74) | 36.4 (2.29) | 60.1 (3.88) | |
Informal | Upper | 37.8 (4.04) | 55.5 (1.66) | 39.9 (4.76) | 59.7 (4.09) | |
Lower | 19.1 (1.76) | 28.0 (0.98) | 1.2 (0.36) | 11.8 (1.66) | ||
Self-employed | Formal | 18.6 (2.80) | 69.3 (2.78) | 2.4 (0.91) | 42.9 (6.74) | |
Informal | Upper | 10.0 (1.82) | 28.6 (2.07) | 3.3 (1.56) | 37.3 (4.59) | |
Lower | 8.3 (0.95) | 33.0 (2.82) | 1.7 (0.38) | 12.2 (1.29) | ||
TOTAL | 19.0 (0.83) | 52.5 (0.55) | 7.1 (0.47) | 25.8 (1.13) |
a) Change (ppts) in proportion of employment by work status | ||||||
Wage employed | Formal | 1.7 | −0.4 | 5.0 | −2.7 | |
Informal | Upper | −2.5 | 1.6 | −2.4 | 0.0 | |
Lower | −3.8 | −3.3 | −0.4 | 0.7 | ||
Self-employed | Formal | 0.8 | 2.0 | −2.8 | 1.3 | |
Informal | Upper | −1.5 | −0.5 | 0.7 | 0.5 | |
Lower | 5.3 | 0.6 | −0.1 | 0.3 | ||
b) Change (ppts) in proportion of formal and informal employment | ||||||
Formal | 2.5 | 1.5 | 2.3 | −1.5 | ||
Informal | Upper | −4.0 | 1.1 | −1.7 | 0.5 | |
Lower | 1.5 | −2.6 | −0.5 | 1.0 | ||
c) Change (ppts) in proportion of self-employment | ||||||
Self-employed | 4.6 | 2.1 | −2.2 | 2.1 |
0.1800 | 0.9647 |
Percentage share | 51.7 | 70.8 | 78.1 | 75.9 | 33.2 | 69.1 | 34.0 | 71.9 |
Level of education (base: no schooling) | ||||||||
Primary | 0.164 |
−0.044 (0.080) | −0.040 (0.025) | 0.013 (0.024) | 0.091 |
0.014 (0.013) | −0.052 |
0.004 (0.020) |
Post-primary | 0.216 |
−0.034 (0.079) | −0.047 |
0.013 (0.023) | 0.332 |
0.014 (0.018) | 0.108 |
−0.033 (0.026) |
Secondary | 0.328 |
−0.044 (0.082) | 0.001 (0.024) | 0.010 (0.024) | 0.602 |
0.127 |
0.089 |
−0.030 (0.031) |
Post-secondary | 0.506 |
−0.018 (0.090) | 0.069 |
−0.013 (0.025) | 0.556 |
0.024 (0.045) | 0.356 |
−0.041 (0.037) |
Tertiary | 0.521 |
−0.081 (0.089) | 0.160 |
−0.022 (0.032) | 0.593 |
0.145 |
0.124 |
−0.111 |
Age | 0.033 |
0.052 |
0.026 |
0.010 |
0.004 |
0.031 |
0.010 |
0.027 |
Age squared (×0.01) | −0.042 |
−0.064 |
−0.024 |
−0.013 |
−0.010 |
−0.039 |
−0.016 |
−0.030 |
Female | 0.189 |
−0.015 (0.014) | −0.089 |
0.061 |
−0.001 (0.011) | −0.074 |
−0.115 |
0.019 (0.013) |
Urban | 0.264 |
−0.032 |
0.113 |
−0.011 (0.008) | 0.375 |
−0.092 |
0.340 |
−0.050 |
Head of household | 0.268 |
0.106 |
0.108 |
0.140 |
||||
Sample member in the previous wave | n.a. |
0.234 |
0.044 |
0.073 |
||||
Wald test of rho = 0 | 15.216 | 10.086 | 17.313 | 9.811 | ||||
F-statistic (p-value) | 0.000 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.002 | ||||
Observations | 6,718 | 21,498 | 7,870 | 4,315 |