What Factors Influence the Shaping of Urban Public Spaces for Sports Cities? A Systematic Review
und | 20. Juli 2023
Online veröffentlicht: 20. Juli 2023
Seitenbereich: 1 - 13
Eingereicht: 11. Okt. 2022
Akzeptiert: 20. Juni 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/acee-2023-0011
Schlüsselwörter
© 2023 Najmaldin Al-Taesh et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Increasing participation in sports is an important goal of health policy [1, 2]. Policymakers are increasingly acknowledging the role of the built environment in creating favourable conditions for active lifestyles. Currently, cities serve as venues for informal sports for all. The idea of “sports city” has gained popularity in recent years as an abstract concept, often used in one of two ways: to designate a specific area within a city as a sports city or to brand an entire city as a sports city [ 3]. The significance of sports cities is increasingly recognized in social, health, economic, and spatial contexts. Additionally, researchers have emphasized the positive impact of sports on health and well-being and the role of sports in promoting social cohesion [2, 4,5,6]. In modern urban society, sports have become an integrated part of our lifestyle, and an increasing number of people are engaging in sports regularly. Furthermore, there is a growing trend towards individualized sports, with fewer people participating in team-based activities. Sport is no longer confined to specialized sports complexes on the outskirts of the city, and anonymous sports facilities are becoming less common [7,8,9, 72]. As well as Municipalities aim to design cities that motivate individuals to engage in higher levels of physical activity [10,11,12].
The importance of urban public spaces for sports and physical activity has increased, and public spaces are now being utilized as venues for practising and organizing various sporting activities and events, including individual and non-organized sports such as running, biking, and parkour [13,14,15]. The use of public spaces for sports can also be a powerful tool for creating a more sustainable city [16]. Developed countries are increasingly aware of the importance of sports in urban planning, and government policies are aimed at creating a sustainable city that provides convenient access to outdoor sports facilities for everyone to engage in physical activity [17, 18]. This approach also can promote the creation of active sports cities.
There are several factors for creating sports cities and promoting sports participation in urban public spaces [7, 19]. Many studies have identified some factors that could lead to an increase in sports participation in urban environments, including spatial sports facilities [20,21,22,23], environmental factors [9, 24,25,26,27,28,29], and organization and programming [7, 30,31,32,33,34,35]. All of these factors play an important role, as they can attract and encourage people to participate in sports. However, they can also act as barriers to participation when organizing sporting events in the urban environment, which can negatively impact the frequency of participation [23, 29, 32, 33, 36, 37].
In this study, the factors associated with sport participation in urban public spaces were classified using the theoretical framework of the sports city idea. The effectiveness of this idea in categorizing potential factors related to sport participation in such settings has been demonstrated [3, 7, 24, 38, 39]. The sports cities idea suggests that there are several factors at various levels that could influence participation in sports including spatial factors (e.g., location, accessibility, relation with public space, distance and proximity, visibility and opening), organisational and programmatic factors (e.g., program mix, developing sports spaces and facilities, maintenance, and policy and target group), and environmental factors (e.g., quality of sport surfaces, accessibility, natural spaces, adapting and attracting spaces).
Improving our understanding of the factors that encourage or impede sports participation in outdoor spaces may increase the success rate of enhancing sports cities and provide direction for making more sustainable cities. Thus, the aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review because the existing literature had not yet been compiled to identify the factors that facilitate or hinder sports participation in urban public spaces accessible to all. This information is essential for sports organizers, policymakers, and urban planners to lead interventions in urban environments that promote sports participation and facilitate the organization of events for all people.
The following ten electronic databases were searched to identify relevant studies published between 2010 and 2022: WoS, SPORTSDiscus, Google Scholar, Scopus, ScienceDirect, AMED, JSTOR, ERIC, IEEExplore, and PubMed. The authors focus on the most recent studies to ensure that the findings of this paper are relevant to current research and practice. For each database, a systematic search strategy was established using three key terms which are: spatial sports facilities, organizing and programming, and environmental factors. In addition, this review sought for nine sub-terms which are as follows: sports facilities, sport, sport for all, public spaces, sports city, regeneration, events, physical activity, and car-free day program. Bibliographies of relevant studies were identified for additional references and Google Scholar was used for citation tracking. Figure 1 outlines the steps selected for the publications included in this systematic review.
Figure 1.
The study selection process excluded articles at each stage
This study ensured that the conclusions were made based on moderate to high-quality research papers. The Critical Appraisal Skills Program checklist [
Ten questions for assessing the quality of systematic reviews: Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) checklist [44]
| 1. Was there a clear statement of the aims of the research? | Yes | Can't tell | No |
| 2. Is a qualitative methodology appropriate? | Yes | Can't tell | No |
| 3. Was the research design appropriate to address the aims of the research? | Yes | Can't tell | No |
| 4. Was the recruitment strategy appropriate to the aims of the research? | Yes | Can't tell | No |
| 5. Was the data collected in a way that addressed the research issue? | Yes | Can't tell | No |
| 6. Has the relationship between research and participants been adequately considered? | Yes | Can't tell | No |
| 7. Have ethical issues been taken into consideration? | Yes | Can't tell | No |
| 8. Was the data analysis sufficiently rigorous? Yes Can't tell | Yes | Can't tell | No |
| 9. Is there a clear statement of findings? | Yes | Can't tell | No |
| 10. How valuable is the research? | Yes | Can't tell | No |
According to the checklist, those articles below the minimum of 50% were excluded. The Joanna Briggs Institute [40] developed a form that was used to extract data after critical evaluation. The form included information about the study's design, sample, data collection, analysis, and outcomes [41]. Furthermore, many studies applied a similar form that included information about the study's design, sample, data collection, analysis, and outcomes [41,42,43]. Two reviewers independently judged the included and excluded papers. Finally, a discussion between them was made to settle any disagreements.
Framework analysis was used for the extracted data. This systematic method summarizes the data into a themed chart. Other studies have used it successfully in synthesizing quantitative and qualitative research [41,42,43, 45, 46]. Five stages are involved, which are:
being systematically familiar with the information; identification of important themes for creating a thematic framework; systematically labelling important issues with an index; using the data to create a number of thematic tables and charts; and finally, mapping and interpretation.
The first author used Excel to construct graphs and summarize data from all the research. A collaboration was then done with the second author to develop themes.
2408 publications were produced by the search technique for the electronic databases, but 2340 of them were rejected based on their abstracts or titles. 44 publications were not included in the full-text analysis of the 68 papers that were obtained. Figure 1 shows the references for the articles that were excluded along with the accompanying reasons. Twenty-four studies investigating aspects of shaping a friendly city for sports in urban public space were included in the review, the main characteristics of which are drawn in Table 2. Five studies focused on spatial sports facilities, ten studies on the organizational and programmatic aspects, and nine studies on environmental factors (adapting and attracting spaces).
Summary of articles reviewed based on promoting sports in urban public spaces
| Aspects | Sources | Aims | Data collection and methods | Types of sporting events | Characteristics findings | Quality score out of 28 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Spatial sports facilities | [7] | To comprehend the spatial relationship between the sports facility and its direct surroundings, as well as how sports spaces can be integrated into physical urban settings. | Site visits, focus groups, and interviews | Basketball, gymnastics, skateboarding, and football |
Location in the city Public access and lockability Accessibility Distance and proximity Relationship with public space Sports size and typology Visibility and opening |
25 |
| [22] | To what extent do spatial circumstances affect restrictions on sports participants? | Questionnaires | Tennis and swimming |
Accessibility and distance to sports facilities Socio-spatial area features (ex., safety, density, and socio-economic status) |
26 | |
| [23] | To find the urban and architectural characteristics of public places in modern cities that can increase sports and physical activity. | Case studies and observation | Skateboarding, DIY sports |
Proximity to residential areas Accessibility to all, including the disabled |
24 | |
| [47] | Determine the factors that play a role in the community's levels of sport participation. | Observation, interview, and documentation studies | Football, Volleyball, Walking, cycling and roller skating |
Accessibility Safety Comfortability in sports spaces Health and fitness |
21 | |
| [37] | To evaluate the effects of planning outdoor sports facilities on sports activities in neighbuorhoods. | GIS and documentation (maps) | N/A |
Inequity in access to outdoor sports facilities Population density Spatial pattern of the facilities Number of outdoor sports facilities unfair distribution of outdoor sports facilities |
22 | |
| Organizing and programming | [30] | Analysis of organized sports activities that young people engage in on public playgrounds. | Observation and interviews | Public playgrounds |
Become a place of contrast Alternate orderings Become a place of disconnection and social exclusion Participants function as a heterotopia |
24 |
| [7] | To comprehend the programming and organizing relationship between the sports facility and its direct surroundings, as well as how sports spaces can be integrated into physical urban settings. | Site visits, focus groups, and interviews | Basketball, gymnastics, skateboarding, and football |
Developing sports spaces and facilities Maintenance Program mix and sports chains Multiple uses Policy and target group |
25 | |
| [31] | To debate the multidimensional process of cultivating a safe space for community events and sports management leverage. | Case studies | N/A |
Physical: accommodating environment, accessibility, provision of security and safety from physical harm psychological/affective: protection from emotional and psychological harm Sociocultural: acceptance, recognition, and familiarity Political: respect for differences, collaborative learning, and dialogue Experimental: experimentation encouraged to happen within the context of a sports event and risk-taking |
23 | |
| [32] | Explain the growing pressure to use public places for a greater range of events and the repercussions. | Analysis case studies | elite sports events, music festivals, and trade exhibitions |
Ticketed events Restricted access to parks Securitization, commercialization and privatization processes that disturb public spaces Become a place for marketing and revenue generation |
25 | |
| [23] | Find the urban and architectural characteristics of public places in modern cities that can increase sports and physical activity. | Case studies and observation | Skating, DIY sports and aerobatics |
Taking into account the diverse needs of different social groups Ensuring the participation of different social groups in the design and organizing process |
25 | |
| [69] | To examine how the use of time and attributes of the physical setting influence adolescents to dropout from sports. | Questionnaires | Football and tennis |
The distances between home and the sporting venues Participation in two sports at the same time |
25 | |
| [34] | To examine features of organizing leisure activities and sports and how it relates to determining the utilization of urban public spaces for activities. | Questionnaires | Football, Skateboarding |
Organizing high-frequency same sports Duration, regularity and at any time Sociodemographic variables such as age and sex determine the use of public space |
21 | |
| [35] | Investigate how informal participation fits into the framework of a policy that aims to increase sports participation. | Semi-structured interviews with stakeholders | N/A |
Currently, rather than encouraging the growth, increase and thriving of informal participation in sports, several actors and organizations act as barriers to it. |
23 | |
| [48] | To investigate the physical and sociological perspectives of urban residents on the use of streets as open spaces in the Car-free Day Program. | Questionnaires and observation | Football, Volleyball, Walking, cycling and roller skating |
Taking into account the comfort spaces Maintenance Active engagement support Providing safety and clean air spaces by removing cars |
22 | |
| [33] | Explore how to decrease problematic issues and user conflicts which relate to using public spaces as staging areas for events | Analyses of case studies | Events |
A practical sense is required when trying to adapt public spaces into more suitable, well-prepared venues. Sometimes, however, issues related to designing events are not necessarily resolved. |
23 | |
| Environmental factors (adapting and attracting spaces) | [9] | To determine what facilities for light sports can help achieve the objectives of attracting new or “light” sports participants. | Interviews with runners | Running |
Accessibility of facilities Comfortable running surfaces Existing facilities (light, trees, safety, etc.) Proximity to living places, other sporting venues, and sanitary facilities. Provision and maintenance of public facilities |
26 |
| [24] | Investigate how attributes of running areas and frequency of running related to the perceived attractiveness or annoyance of the environment. | Questionnaires | Running |
Running in parks and the quality of running surfaces are both positively connected with attractiveness The most frequent irritants are poor lighting, unleashed dogs, cyclists, and cars |
26 | |
| [25] | Explain the adaptation patterns of sports participants’ utilization of public spaces. | Documentation, observation, and interviews. | Gymnastic community performances, aerobics, and exercises |
Adjustability to possible changes Accessibility by all people Sociocultural factors (social, ecologic, physical, and economic) |
22 | |
| [23] | Find the urban and architectural characteristics of public places in modern cities which can increase sports and physical activity. | Case studies and observation | Skating, DIY sports and aerobatic |
Variability and multifunctionality in sports and recreation spaces Adaptation of open spaces over time to meet the changing requirements of the community Aesthetics and interesting designs Proximity to places of residence Accessibility for everyone |
25 | |
| [27] | Determine whether socio-spatial neighbourhood characteristics and objective physical characteristics are associated with sports participation and location preferences. | Questionnaires | N/A |
The number of sports facilities and the increased percentages of green and blue spaces are strongly related to sports participation in public spaces |
25 | |
| [26] | To find planning guidelines and procedures for parks that might best provide space for a given organized sport. | Case study and documentation (map) | N/A |
Natural spaces are essential to creating locations that appeal to various recreational users and to the growing number of people who participate in organized sports |
24 | |
| [28] | To identify the motives and goals of sports participants in public spaces. | Questionnaires | Running |
Green areas Lively running environment Comfortable running surfaces Feelings of safety |
26 | |
| [49] | To explore or rethink inclusive public space for different groups of society and activities. | Case studies | Various physical activities |
Absence of a temporary change of use (users or activities). Interventions need to adapt to various activities Exclusivity to some groups of people Variety of safety issues |
25 | |
| [29] | to examine the most recent changes to approaches in public space planning and design in connection to sports activities. | documentation (photographs) and case studies | basketball, skate cycling, football, roller skating |
Promote new ways of using which can improve current spaces for sport Construction of structures that redevelop deteriorated areas Integration with the context |
25 |
The quality score for the assessment of the included studies ranged from 21 to 26, out of 28 points. Surveys were carried out on multi-types of sports and events in different countries, however, a few of the studies did not specify the type of sports. Questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, focus groups, case studies (GIS and maps, documentation, photographs), observation, and interviews were used to collect data in the included studies. The three factors which shaped this overarching concept covered the main aspects to emerge from the synthesis (Table 2).
All of the included studies identified the characteristics of public spaces which need to exist in order to be able to promote participation in sports for all as well as give an image of sports to cities (Table 2).
Five included studies identified characteristics of spatial sports facilities which influence the promotion of participation in sports [7, 22, 23, 37, 47]. Some identified characteristics that spatial sports facilities should have and which could aid in encouraging increased participation include locations in cities close to residential areas, accessibility to all, especially the disabled, relationship with public space, visibility and opening, and safety and comfort in sports spaces. However, participants reported that barriers to spatial sports facilities included: inequity in access, unfair distribution in the number of outdoor sports facilities, the spatial pattern of the facilities and socio-spatial neighbourhood features such as safety, socioeconomic status, and density (Table 2).
Ten included studies identified those aspects of organizational and programmatic sports in urban public spaces which influence the promotion of participation [7, 23, 28, 30,31,32,33,34,35, 48]. Factors which promote participation include: developing sports spaces and facilities, provision of secure, safe, comfortable, and well-maintained spaces, organizing sports activities near or/in natural spaces, involvement of different social groups in the organizing process, creating policies which target different social groups, and having programs which mix multiple sporting activities at different times.
However, reported barriers to participation in organized sports include: ticketed events that become a place for marketing and revenue generation, distances between homes and sporting venues, and the duration and time of organizing sports. Several actors and organizations can act as barriers to informal participation in organized sports, thereby leading to a reduction of participants. Also, by engaging informal people in sports activities, the possible location becomes more contrasted, disconnected, and socially excluded (Table 2).
Nine included studies identified the environment as a factor in attracting and encouraging sports participation in outdoor urban spaces [9, 23,24,25,26,27,28,29, 49]. Ways in which environmental factors encourage participation include provision of accessibility for everyone, proximity to places of residence, an interesting and aesthetic design of the place, large numbers of sports facilities and higher proportions of green and blue spaces. Others are feelings of safety, comfortable environmental surface areas, regular maintenance of public spaces and facilities; variability and multifunctionality in sports and recreational spaces, and adjustment to possible changes. On the other hand, difficulties encountered in enticing people to participate in outdoor sports include lack of accessibility for all people, a variety of safety issues, exclusiveness for some groups of people, no room for a temporary change of uses (users or activities); the most frequent barriers are poor lighting, unleashed dogs, cyclists, and cars (Table 2).
In this study, we investigated factors which influence ideas on shaping public spaces for sports cities, for the promotion of sports participation in urban environments. This systematic review centred on three aspects that may be considered in urban public spaces for increased participation in sporting activities. They include spatial sports facilities, organization and programming, and environmental factors. In general, the findings of the characteristics of each aspect were identified in the included studies, which impacted the creation of attractive environments for the organization of informal sports for all in urban environments.
The findings of our study underscore the importance of spatial sports facilities in the development of active sports cities and in promoting greater participation in sports. By increasing the number of sports facilities and ensuring their proximity to residential areas, we can encourage more people to engage in sports and physical activities. This is especially important for diverse groups of individuals, including those with disabilities and the elderly, as easy access and safety for sports facilities make them more attractive. However, our study also highlights the negative impact of distance, inequitable access, and uneven distribution of outdoor sports facilities in neighbourhoods, which can discourage sports participation. Previous research has also demonstrated similar results that sports facilities play a crucial role in promoting physical activity and increasing activity levels by providing easy accessibility [4, 18, 50,51,52], with the number of facilities located near participants’ residences being a key factor [53,54,55].
Therefore, efforts to increase sports participation should focus on enhancing access to relevant facilities [56]. Our results suggest that integrating sports facilities into other functions in urban environments, particularly public spaces, can help address barriers that sports participants face. Additionally, sports facilities can serve as social meeting places, contributing to the image of sports cities that are welcoming to all.
In order to create lively outdoor urban environments through sporting events, it is essential to organize and program multi-sport activities which can target all groups of people at different times [7]. Our results showed that different people from various backgrounds voluntarily taking part and collaborating with multiple agencies and informal groups in organizing sports can increase the range of participation in sports. Similar studies have found that ensuring participation of different social groups in the organization of sports can support the creation of strong social relationships between participants which can in turn increase the frequency of participation in sports [57,58,59,60, 73, 35], however noted that several organizers and actors act as invaders and barriers to informal participants partaking in organized sports, the result of which is conflict in sporting events and combative relationships. These can in turn negatively affect participation instead of encouraging it to thrive and grow. Regarding these issues, it might be necessary to permit community groups to plan some of these events [60]. Nevertheless, our results also found that when only young people engage in organized sports activities, contrasts and alternate orderings are created and the places function as a heterotopia rather than a place of connection and social inclusion. Therefore, it is crucial to collaborate with stakeholders to organize and program sporting events for everyone.
For this reason, urban public spaces can bring diverse groups of people together, as well as foster positive emotions and facilitate various activities for all [59, 61, 62, 71, 74]. In relation to this, this review also finds that public spaces can serve as a venue for organized and non-organized sports, as well as for enabling the programming of a wide range of sporting events proximate to residential areas, thereby creating more opportunities for all city residents and leading to higher participation in sports. However, further findings in this study indicate that in the organization of sporting events, sports organizers and practitioners use public places for marketing and revenue generation, which has negatively impacted sports participants [32, 63]. Additionally, a similar study found that management and maintenance issues are frequently overlooked in the design of public open spaces [36]; as a result, our results also show that collaboration between local governments and private parties is critical.
The quality of the urban environment highly influences outdoor sports. Attractive outdoor spaces could increase the frequency of participation in sports [64]. Our results demonstrate that natural spaces are essential for creating locations that appeal to various recreational users and the growing number of people engaging in sports and physical activities. Specifically, higher proportions of green and blue spaces (water spaces and features) affect participants’ perception of the spaces’ attractiveness. Additionally, the environmental quality of sporting venues, such as comfortable environmental surfaces, feelings of safety, and living environments, can encourage participation in sports. However, our results, especially for running environments, have found that poor lighting, cars, cyclists, and unleashed dogs negatively affect running frequency in urban environments. Furthermore, previous research has concluded that the lack of accessibility for all people and a variety of safety issues are the challenges encountered in enticing people to participate in outdoor sports [34, 65, 70]; therefore, having access to sports facilities can play a significant role in increasing physical activity levels, making it an important environmental factor to consider [18].
According to our results, the urban and architectural characteristics of public spaces in modern cities, such as aesthetics and interesting design, as well as accessibility for all age groups and disabled people, can entice people of all ages to participate in sports and physical activities. Several previous studies have shown that municipalities are aiming to create cities that promote physical activity among residents [10, 12, 54]. It is important to consider how individuals perceive the physical environment because perceptions of safety and attractiveness can significantly impact sports participation [66]. This may provide a positive sports image and increase visitors’ desire to return to recurring events [67]. In addition, participation could also be promoted through, not only increasing the number of sports facilities but by placing them in close proximity to places of residence. And also this review further finds that inclusivity and multifunctionality are important factors in the planning and designing of urban regeneration programs. Regarding the quality of places for accommodating various sports activities, they should be more inviting, friendly, and lively. Besides, some practical sense must be applied when it comes to adapting public spaces into more accessible places for all, where various safety issues are mitigated [25, 34, 66, 68]. Doing this may encourage everyone to take part in sports.
Understanding the factors that shape public spaces for sports in cities and promote sports participation is important for leading interventions in urban public spaces. This review paper clarifies the characteristics that positively and negatively impact sports in an urban environment. By understanding barriers to participation in outdoor sports, we can adjust and enhance them. However, it is even more significant for this study to identify the positive features of sports environments that increase participation.
A strength of this study is that it used a comprehensive search strategy to find 24 papers that met the prerequisites for eligibility. The findings were broadly consistent throughout the studies, despite the fact that the main objective was to determine how the urban environment could encourage everyone to participate in sports. English-language publications were included, though being that the English language is one of the reviewer's limitations, it's probable that some relevant literature was overlooked. A thorough search of a few electronic resources was carried out. Published materials which easily identify the research criteria were included. In addition, only researches related to sporting events in public spaces were included.
The objective of this study was to identify the critical aspects that impact the creation of sports cities, based on research areas and insights from professionals in the fields of architecture and urban design. However, gaining a comprehensive understanding of other crucial aspects such as intrapersonal characteristics, sociological and psychological factors, sports disciplines, cultural differences, and local climate requires further exploration. Conducting a systematic review that deeply examines each aspect will help us improve our understanding of how these factors influence the shaping of urban public spaces for sports cities, benefiting all members of the community.
In order to create sports cities accessible to all, it is imperative that public authorities, practitioners, and urban planners collaborate and prioritize the following factors when revitalizing urban environments. By doing so, they can effectively address the existing barriers that hinder the organization and practice of sports activities in urban public spaces. This collaborative effort will lead to the creation of more accessible and inviting public spaces that can host and organize a diverse range of sporting events, ultimately leading to increased participation in physical activity for individuals of all ages and abilities.
There is an increasing trend of developing cities that are specifically designed to host sports and sporting events. Urban public spaces are considered important as suitable locations for informal sports activities. Policymakers and scholars have recognized the potential of aesthetically pleasing and well-designed public spaces to encourage more people to participate in sports. This systematic review found the factors that facilitate or hinder sports participation in urban public spaces. These factors can create sports cities as well as promote sports participation in urban environments, including spatial sports facilities factors (e.g., location, accessibility, relation with public space, distance and proximity, visibility and opening), organisational and programmatic factors (e.g., program mix, developing sports spaces and facilities, maintenance, and policy and target group), and environmental factors (e.g., quality of sport surfaces, accessibility, natural spaces, adapting and attracting spaces). While some features of public spaces can facilitate sports and physical activity, other features may act as barriers and negatively impact participants. To address these barriers and make sporting events more accessible to all, the review recommended policy and practice changes for each aspect.