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Long-Term Trends in the Chemical and Mechanical Denudation in a Small Carpathian Catchment

Małgorzata Kijowska-Strugała

Małgorzata Kijowska-Strugała

Department of Geoenvironmental Research, Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization, Polish Academy of SciencesSzymbark, Poland
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Kijowska-Strugała, Małgorzata
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Witold Bochenek

Witold Bochenek

Department of Geoenvironmental Research, Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization, Polish Academy of SciencesSzymbark, Poland
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Bochenek, Witold
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Sabina Wójcik

Sabina Wójcik

Department of Geoenvironmental Research, Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization, Polish Academy of SciencesSzymbark, Poland
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Wójcik, Sabina
  
07. Aug. 2025
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Online veröffentlicht: 07. Aug. 2025
Eingereicht: 24. Feb. 2025
DOI: https://doi.org/10.14746/quageo-2025-0026
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© 2025 Małgorzata Kijowska-Strugała et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Fig. 1.

A – Location of the study area and environmental characteristics of the Bystrzanka catchment area; B – slope; based on the deM with 10 m resolution; C – geological structure: 1– fault, 2 – minor thrust fault, 3 – major thrust fault, 4 – Inoceramus beds, 5 – Cięzkowickie sandstones, 6 – Magura sandstones, 7 – Sub-Magura sandstones, 8 – Krosno Bed, 9 – variegated shales; based on Wójcik et al. (2003).
A – Location of the study area and environmental characteristics of the Bystrzanka catchment area; B – slope; based on the deM with 10 m resolution; C – geological structure: 1– fault, 2 – minor thrust fault, 3 – major thrust fault, 4 – Inoceramus beds, 5 – Cięzkowickie sandstones, 6 – Magura sandstones, 7 – Sub-Magura sandstones, 8 – Krosno Bed, 9 – variegated shales; based on Wójcik et al. (2003).

Fig. 2.

Land use an land cover (LULC) changes in Bystrzanka catchment (1 – cultivated land, 2 – forest (deciduous, mixed), 3 – grassland, 4 – orchards, 5 – agro-forestry transitional areas, 6 – urbanised area, industrial or commercial, sports or recreational areas, low-density buildings, roads; based on aerial photos Olędzki 2007, Zwoliński, Gudowicz 2011, Bochenek 2020).
Land use an land cover (LULC) changes in Bystrzanka catchment (1 – cultivated land, 2 – forest (deciduous, mixed), 3 – grassland, 4 – orchards, 5 – agro-forestry transitional areas, 6 – urbanised area, industrial or commercial, sports or recreational areas, low-density buildings, roads; based on aerial photos Olędzki 2007, Zwoliński, Gudowicz 2011, Bochenek 2020).

Fig. 3.

Annual totals of precipitation (P), runoff totals (R) and runoff coefficient (Rc) in 1995–2023.
Annual totals of precipitation (P), runoff totals (R) and runoff coefficient (Rc) in 1995–2023.

Fig. 4.

Annual SF, share of snowfall in annual precipitation and duration of snow cover. SF, snowfall.
Annual SF, share of snowfall in annual precipitation and duration of snow cover. SF, snowfall.

Fig. 5.

A – Number of floods distinguished by genetic classification (Lambor 1965) in 1995–2023; B – layer of water above discharge threshold (mm). Or – continuous rainfall, Ou – heavy rainfall, O(u + r) – mixed rainfall, r – snowmelt, M – mixed rainfall and snowmelt.
A – Number of floods distinguished by genetic classification (Lambor 1965) in 1995–2023; B – layer of water above discharge threshold (mm). Or – continuous rainfall, Ou – heavy rainfall, O(u + r) – mixed rainfall, r – snowmelt, M – mixed rainfall and snowmelt.

Fig. 6.

Flood runoff and number and hydrological drought duration from 1995 to 2023.
Flood runoff and number and hydrological drought duration from 1995 to 2023.

Fig. 7.

Mean annual pH and electrical conductivity (EC) in precipitation (P) and runoff (R).
Mean annual pH and electrical conductivity (EC) in precipitation (P) and runoff (R).

Fig. 8.

Average ion concentration (%) of in A – precipitation and B – runoff.
Average ion concentration (%) of in A – precipitation and B – runoff.

Fig. 9.

Variation in the content of individual ions in dissolved yield precipitation (DY_P) and dissolved yield runoff (dY_r) between 1995 and 2023.
Variation in the content of individual ions in dissolved yield precipitation (DY_P) and dissolved yield runoff (dY_r) between 1995 and 2023.

Fig. 10.

Changes in individual nutrients (P–PO43−, N–NO3–, N–NH4+) and total nutrient loads in the Bystrzanka stream between 1995 and 2023.
Changes in individual nutrients (P–PO43−, N–NO3–, N–NH4+) and total nutrient loads in the Bystrzanka stream between 1995 and 2023.

Fig. 11.

Chemical denudation balance in the Bystrzanka catchment between 1995 and 2023.
Chemical denudation balance in the Bystrzanka catchment between 1995 and 2023.

Fig. 12.

Plot of SSC in the stream against discharge (Q) and precipitation (P) during the A – 3–4 June 2010 and B – 16–17 May 2014 flood events with a hysteresis loop and an example of concentration on an unpaved road in the Bystrzanka catchment. SSC, suspended sediment concentration.
Plot of SSC in the stream against discharge (Q) and precipitation (P) during the A – 3–4 June 2010 and B – 16–17 May 2014 flood events with a hysteresis loop and an example of concentration on an unpaved road in the Bystrzanka catchment. SSC, suspended sediment concentration.

Fig. 13.

DL_R and SSL changes against runoff (R) between 1995 and 2023. DL_R, dissolved load runoff.
DL_R and SSL changes against runoff (R) between 1995 and 2023. DL_R, dissolved load runoff.

Fig. 14.

Dependence of SSY and DY_R on the runoff above the flood threshold between 1995 and 2023. DY_R, dissolved yield runoff.
Dependence of SSY and DY_R on the runoff above the flood threshold between 1995 and 2023. DY_R, dissolved yield runoff.

Statistical characteristics of temperature (T), precipitation (P), snowfall (SF), runoff (R) and Rc in the Bystrzanka catchment between 1995 and 2023 (bold: statistically significant p < 0_05)_

Period Air temperature T Precipitation P Snowfall SF Runoff R Runoff coefficient Rc
Average Trend (per decade) Average Trend (per decade) Average Trend (per decade) Average Trend (per decade)
[°C] [mm] [%]
Year (1995–2023) (min–max) 8.8 (6.2–10.1) 0.73 864.5 (612.4–1180.0) –4.5 118.2 (17.0–222.8) –25.0 390.2 (85.0–856.6) –74.5 45 (13–73)
Cv (%) 10.5 15.5 42.3 35.2
Winter half-year (1995–2023) 2.3 0.91 283.2 –8.2 118.2 (17.0–222.8) –25.0 199.3 –43.5 70
Summer half-year (1995–2023) 15.2 0.51 581.3 3.7 190.9 –31.0 33
Year (1995–2004) 8.0 850.2 138.3 441.4 52
Year (2014–2023) 9.6 880.0 77.3 317.7 36

Characteristics of dissolved ion in dissolved yield precipitation (DY_P) and dissolved yield runoff water (DY_R) from 1995 to 2023 (bold: statistically significant p < 0_05)_

Parameter Precipitation Runoff
DY_P Cv Coefficient DY_R Cv Coefficient
[kg · ha−1 · a−1] [%] [kg · ha−1 · a−1] [%]
S–SO42– 8.62 40.3 –0.18 48.38 45.7 –1.06
N–NO3– 5.50 32.0 –0.05 5.90 39.8 –0.18
Cl– 6.61 87.5 –0.05 28.48 40.2 –0.39
Na+ 2.54 63.9 0.09 18.60 33.7 –0.19
K+ 2.03 37.2 0.03 18.60 40.0 –0.42
Mg2+ 1.33 45.8 0.01 23.33 40.4 –0.50
Ca2+ 10.16 39.8 0.21 175.24 38.9 –2.54
N–NH4+ 5.60 37.3 –0.19 0.89 92.7 –0.05
HCO3– 516.56 33.4 –4.83
P–PO43– 0.41 66.5 –0.02
Load (1995–2023) 4.90 28.6 –0.12 859.9 33.0 –0.14
1995–2004 vs. 2014–2023
p-value (Mann–Whitney U test)
S–SO42– 0.054 0.004
N–NO3– 0.241 0.000
Cl– 0.076 0.031
Na+ 0.002 0.273
K+ 0.045 0.002
Mg2+ 0.307 0.017
Ca2+ 0.850 0.021
N–NH4+ 3.062 0.017
HCO3– 0.162
P–PO43– 0.000

Number of days with precipitation and snow cover in 1995–2023_

Precipitation (P) 1995–2023 1995–2004 2014–2023
Number of days
Total 181 184 165
≤1.0 mm 66 68 52
1.0 < P ≤ 5.0 mm 64 67 61
5.0 < P ≤ 10.0 mm 26 26 26
10.0 < P ≤ 20.0 mm 17 16 17
20.0 < P ≤ 30.0 mm 5 3 6
30.0 < P ≤ 50.0 mm 3 3 3
>50.0 mm 1 1 1
Snow cover 67 81 45
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