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Social and Geographical Distribution of Mobility-Related Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Poznań and Tri-City Functional Urban Areas

Michał Czepkiewicz
Michał Czepkiewicz
, 
Cezary Brudka
Cezary Brudka
, 
Dawid Krysiński
Dawid Krysiński
 und 
Filip Schmidt
Filip Schmidt
   | 27. Feb. 2024
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Online veröffentlicht: 27. Feb. 2024
Seitenbereich: 235 - 255
Eingereicht: 01. Aug. 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.14746/quageo-2024-0014
© 2024 Michał Czepkiewicz et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Fig. 1.

Spatial extent of the study areas: the Tri-city and Poznań functional areas and their core cities, population density distribution, and locations of the main city centres.
Spatial extent of the study areas: the Tri-city and Poznań functional areas and their core cities, population density distribution, and locations of the main city centres.

Fig. 2.

Short-distance travel CO2 emissions in Poznań and the Tri-city areas by travel mode. The box area represents the average yearly emission level.
Short-distance travel CO2 emissions in Poznań and the Tri-city areas by travel mode. The box area represents the average yearly emission level.

Fig. 3.

Long-distance travel GHG emissions in Poznań and the Tri-city area by mode. Box area represents average yearly emission levels. Non-CO2 effects of air travel are marked with dotted areas.
Long-distance travel GHG emissions in Poznań and the Tri-city area by mode. Box area represents average yearly emission levels. Non-CO2 effects of air travel are marked with dotted areas.

Fig. 4.

Lorenz curve of emission levels in long-distance travel and short-distance travel.
Lorenz curve of emission levels in long-distance travel and short-distance travel.

Fig. 5.

CO2 emissions from short-distance (top, green, N = 3699, ρ = -0.41, p < 0.001) and long-distance travel (bottom, blue, N = 3746, ρ = -0.34, p < 0.001) in 5-year age groups in the whole sample.
CO2 emissions from short-distance (top, green, N = 3699, ρ = -0.41, p < 0.001) and long-distance travel (bottom, blue, N = 3746, ρ = -0.34, p < 0.001) in 5-year age groups in the whole sample.

Fig. 6.

CO2 emissions from short-distance travel (top, green, N = 3703, ρ = 0.26, p < 0.001) and ling-distance travel (bottom, blue, N = 3750, ρ = 0.30, p < 0.001) in respondents’ education level in the whole sample.
CO2 emissions from short-distance travel (top, green, N = 3703, ρ = 0.26, p < 0.001) and ling-distance travel (bottom, blue, N = 3750, ρ = 0.30, p < 0.001) in respondents’ education level in the whole sample.

Fig. 7.

SDT and LDT emissions and distance from the residential location to the closest city centre in the Tri-city (SDT: N = 1897, ρ = 0.17, p < 0.001 and LDT: N = 1914, ρ insignificant, p > 0.05) and Poznań (SDT: N = 1799, ρ = 0.23, p < 0.001 and LDT: N = 1800, ρ = -0.11, p < 0.001) areas.
SDT and LDT emissions and distance from the residential location to the closest city centre in the Tri-city (SDT: N = 1897, ρ = 0.17, p < 0.001 and LDT: N = 1914, ρ insignificant, p > 0.05) and Poznań (SDT: N = 1799, ρ = 0.23, p < 0.001 and LDT: N = 1800, ρ = -0.11, p < 0.001) areas.

Fig. 8.

Hot and cold spots of SDT and LDT emissions in the Poznań area and Tricity area were calculated with Getis-Ord Gi* method with a 2000 m distance band.
Hot and cold spots of SDT and LDT emissions in the Poznań area and Tricity area were calculated with Getis-Ord Gi* method with a 2000 m distance band.

Fig. A1.

CO2 emissions from short-distance travel in main gender groups (N = 3699, ρ = -0.15, p < 0.001).
CO2 emissions from short-distance travel in main gender groups (N = 3699, ρ = -0.15, p < 0.001).

Fig. A2.

CO2 emissions from long-distance travel in main gender groups (N = 3746, ρ insignificant, p > 0.05).
CO2 emissions from long-distance travel in main gender groups (N = 3746, ρ insignificant, p > 0.05).

Global Moran’s I of emission levels.

Study area Travel scope Moran’s I Pseudo p-value N
Tri-city Short-distance 0.064 0.001 1978
Long-distance (all) 0.010 0.039 1917
Long-distance (air) 0.014 0.016 1917
Poznań Short-distance 0.126 0.001 1824
Long-distance (all) 0.092 0.001 1800
Long-distance (air) 0.065 0.001 1800

Spearman correlation coefficients (ρ) between built environment characteristics and emissions from long- and short-distance travel.

Travel scope Area Distance to the closest city centre Population density Basic service density Street intersection density
Short-distance travel emissions Poznań 0.23 -0.25 -0.28 -0.24
Tri-city 0.17 -0.10 -0.20 -0.17
Long-distance travel emissions Poznań -0.10 0.09 0.07 0.09
Tri-city -0.03 0.03 0.01 0.02

Estimation of yearly travel frequency based on survey answers.

Answer options Yearly trip number
Less than once a month 10
1-3 times a month 24
1-2 times a week 72
3-4 times a week 168
5 times a week or more 240

Estimation of trip distance based on distance bands.

Distance band [km] Numeric value
50-200 125
201-500 350
501-1000 750
1001-3000 2000
>3000 4000

Emission factors for short-distance travel modes.

Travel mode Vehicle type Emission coefficient Fuel use Fuel WTW carbon intensity Electric energy use Electric energy carbon intensity Average load
[kg CO2 · Pkm-1] [1.·100 km-1 Source [kg CO2·1-1] Source [kWh·100 km-1] Source [kg CO2·kWh-1] Source [Pax] Source Assumptions
Private car Gasoline ICEV 0.164 7.16 Survey average weight-ed by travel distance 3.016 (Prussi et al. 2020) 1.64 Survey answers
Diesel ICEV 0.197 7.08 3.484
LPG ICEV 0.116 7.64 1.876
HEV 0.145 6.65 3.016
PHEV 0.142 6.68 3.016 18.2 Survey average weight-ed by travel distance 0.792 (KO-BiZE 2022), adjusted using Scarlat et al. (2022) method Share of electric drive: 50%
BEV 0.092 17.3 0.792
Weighted average 0.169 Weighted by travel distance
Tram or bus Diesel bus 0.081 42 MPK 3.484 (Prussi et al. 2020) 18 MPK Share of electric buses in bus perfor-mance: 8% Share of buses in transport perfor-mance: 50%
Electric bus 0.067 152 MPK 0.792 MPK
Tram 0.064 289 (Krych 2019) 0.792 36 (Krych 2019)
Weighted average 0.072
Urban train Urban train (Poznań) 0.084 740 (Jakubowski et al. 2018, 2016) 0.792 70 UTK EN57 train Average load from KW and Polregio
Urban train (Tri-city) 0.039 740 0.792 150 UTK EN57 train average load in SKM and PKM
E-bike or e-scooter E-bike 0.005 0.6 (Weiss et al. 2020) 0.792 1 Share of e-bikes: 50%
E-scooter 0.011 1.4 0.792 1
Weighted average 0.008

Emission factors for long-distance travel modes (data of the UTK 2023 for Polregio and PKP Intercity railway carriers).

Travel mode Vehicle type Distance band(s) CO2 emission coefficient non-CO2 emission coefficient Average load or utility factor Other assumptions and sources
[kg CO2 · Pkm-1] [kg CO2 · vkm-1] Source [kg CO2eq · pkm-1] RFI factor [pax] [%] Source
Car All 0.124 0.223 (IEA 2023) NA 1.8 NA
Train Average 50-200 km 0.068 Own estimation based on fuel and energy consumption in commonly used trains 73 UTK - Polregio 75% share in performance, EN57
Diesel 0.031 5.859 25% share in performance; railcar - 65.8 l/100 km of diesel fuel
Electric 0.080 2.294 Polish electricity, KOBiZE (2022) adjusted with Scarlat et al. (2022) method
Electric 201-1000 km 0.053 11.084 209 UTK - PKP Intercity
Electric >1001 km 0.022 4.676 European electric-ity (Scarlat et al., 2022)
Ferry 50-200 km 0.415 (Czepkiewicz et al. 2018c)
>200 km 0.238
Bus 50-1000 km 0.073 (Mantzos et al. 2018)
>1001 km 0.067 (Doll et al. 2020)
Plane 50-200 km 0.699 Own estima-tions based on Knorr and Huttermann (2016) 0.000 1.0 71 Fuel use per seat-km from Knorr and Huttermann (2016) Kerosene WTW emissions from Jing et al. (2022)
201-500 km 0.348 0.000 1.0 71
501-1000 km 0.209 0.119 1.6 75
1001-3000 km 0.151 0.143 2.0 75
>3000 km 0.133 0.213 2.8 80
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