Gender-Specific Preferences Regarding Urban Green Areas

Green areas in cities are not only places of recreation and aesthetically attractive spaces. They also play an essential role in mitigating the negative effects of climate change through water retention, providing natural protection against the sun and locally maintaining a lower temperature (Alexandri, Jones 2008; Tiwari et al. 2021). The role of urban greenery is also significant from the point of view of the quality of life and mental health. Green areas, including urban green areas, have a great impact on people’s well-being (Galindo, Corraliza 2000; Lee, Maheswaran 2010; MacKerron, Mourato 2013; Ambrey, Fleming 2014; Sang et al. 2016; Santos et al. 2016; Seresinhe et al. 2019; Wang et al. 2019; Chen et al. 2021). Access to greenery provides a range of benefits for residents, including opportunities for physical activities or social relations (Lee, Maheswaran 2010; Wu et al. 2020). Also, the impact on mental well-being is of great importance. However, there are differences in the results of research conducted in different countries. For example, according to studies conducted in Sweden by Annerstedt et al. (2012) and Sang et al. (2016), exposure to greenery was associated with higher mental well-being among women. On the other hand, in an Australian study conducted by Astell-Burt et al. (2014), that type of positive relationship was only among men.

The value of green areas is increasingly understood both by the users themselves (residents and organisations representing their interests) and by local authorities, who must consider the essence of this form of land use in the public debate. From the urban planning point of view, in Poland, the creation of new green areas in cities on a large scale is strongly limited by the financial costs of changing the land use function for the benefit of landowners entitled to compensation. Also, the investment pressure (especially in the rapidly developing metropolitan urban areas in Poland in the last three decades, see: Kaczmarek et al. 2022) constitutes a threat to green areas, as legal regulations in Poland have strong limitations in this regard (Kronenberg et al. 2021; Supreme Audit Office 2022; Legutko-Kobus et al. 2023). As a consequence, public awareness of the importance of green areas and participation in the creation of spatial planning policies might play an important role in the protection of that type of land use and urban biodiversity (Mabelis, Maksymiuk 2009; Biernacka, Kronenberg 2019; Tang, Li 2022). In relation to a strong disproportion of gender representation in public consultations in spatial planning in Poland in favour of men (Wójcicki 2018), attention should be paid to whose voice is presented in the process of urban green areas development and what is missing.

In the face of climatic challenges, the need for urban green areas is undeniable, playing a crucial role in improving living conditions in cities. However, understanding gendered preferences is essential as public input is crucial to securing these necessary green spaces. Different genders have varied preferences and ways of using these areas (Annerstedt et al. 2012; Astell-Burt et al. 2014; Sang et al. 2016), highlighting the importance of public participation processes that accurately capture and consider these differences. This clear understanding of the problem is pivotal, facilitating not only the planning but also the utilisation of green spaces that cater to everyone’s needs and preferences. Thus, increasing the amount of urban green areas seems to be a primary measure aimed at improving living conditions in the cities in the context of torrential rainfalls, high temperatures and the generation of an urban heat island (Bowler et al. 2010). In this light, more and more local governments (and politicians) are promoting policies focused on the development of urban green areas through public participation (Sanesi, Chiarello 2006; Buijs et al. 2016; Fok, Law 2018; Belčáková et al. 2022), which should be inclusive and representative of all genders to ensure the creation of spaces that are truly public and accessible.

During the works on the Study of conditions and directions of spatial development in Zielona Góra¹ (Poland) conducted by a city urban planning office, a public consultation on preferences on different aspects of land use was carried out using a public participation geographic information systems (PPGIS) tool, which is a geo-questionnaire. One of the most important issues covered by the study was urban greenery – preferred areas, their accessibility and the development of new urban green areas. The results made it possible to evaluate the possible relationship between gender and preferred types of visited green areas, and to explore the differences among men and women in expectations regarding the spatial development of green areas, providing an insight towards gender mainstreaming policy in the context of urban planning in Polish cities.

Gender mainstreaming is a rapidly growing approach to local development and residents’ well-being in cities. The term was established in 1985 during the UN World Conference on Women in Nairobi, Kenya, as an international strategy for equality policy. It is a strategy that is based on the promotion of gender equality, ensuring that the gender perspective is key to all activities and decision-making. Within the Treaty of Amsterdam, adopted by the EU countries in 1997, gender mainstreaming perspective became its official policy approach. It was defined by the Council of Europe (1998: 18) as “the (re) organisation, improvement, development and evaluation of policy processes, so that a gender equality perspective is incorporated in all policies at all levels and at all stages, by the actors normally involved in policy-making.” Gender equality, which is core to gender mainstreaming policy, is one of the UN Agenda for Sustainable Development (2015), supporting equal access to resources, education, policy-making, etc. However, in Poland, there are no nationwide actions that would promote the implementation of gender mainstreaming strategies. There is also a limited scope of local policies promoting gender equality in spatial planning, comparable to Barcelona, Berlin or Vienna, which are leaders in implementing this strategy in Europe.

The gender mainstreaming approach seems to be crucial for urban planning processes, including development of urban green areas, in which perspectives and needs of different gender representatives should be taken into account. Thus, the aim of the study was to investigate whether the habits and preferences of men and women regarding urban green areas in the selected study area in Poland will provide insightful premises for spatial planning policies and whether a stronger focus on the representativeness of different genders in public consultations should be a part of those policies. Thus, the research questions of the study presented in the paper are the following:

What are the preferences regarding the types of visited green areas among men and women?

The data for the study were collected using a PPGIS tool – a geo-questionnaire. The questionnaire included questions about the basic socio-demographic characteristics of respondents, as well as more complex spatial characteristics regarding preferences for urban green areas. A multilevel approach to statistical data analysis was adopted, using descriptive statistics and a clustering algorithm.

The gender gap in time use patterns may play an important role in connection with the possibility of travelling longer distances to visit green areas and satisfaction with the time spent determining the type of activity. For example, Mattingly and Bianchi (2003) found out that men tended to have more free time than women, while women’s free time was more fragmented. The same results were obtained by Rubiano-Matulevich and Viollaz (2019) in their more recent study conducted in 19 countries from different world regions. According to this study, women have 36 minutes less leisure time than men during the day. At the same time, leisure time spent by women has a higher ‘positive leisure experience’ than by men (Codina, Pestana 2019). It refers to higher satisfaction regarding leisure activities despite less available time and may apply to such activities as walking, which in Poland is more popular among women than men as a transport mode (Jakubiec et al. 2015; Czarnecki et al. 2023). Those findings seem to be relevant in regard to differences in perception and use of urban green spaces between genders (Kaczynski et al. 2009; Schipperijn et al. 2010; Sang et al. 2016). According to a study by Sang et al. (2016), the effect of gender was evident for different activities, with higher importance among women in the following types of activities – relaxing, socialising, experiencing nature, walking, getting fresh air, looking for a place to cool, following the changes in the nature by seasons and studying wildlife. The study shows that, in general, women are more physically active than men in urban green spaces. Also, the level of naturalness of urban green spaces impacts the level of physical activity (Cerin et al. 2008). In the study by Kaczynski et al. (2009) conducted in Canada, living in closer proximity to a higher number of green areas is more correlated with higher physical activity among women than men. However, in the study conducted by Cohen et al. (2007) in the US, women were less present in urban parks than men and were less frequently physically active there.

The activity in urban green areas can also be related to preferences as to urban green area types, design and overall presence. Schipperijn et al. (2010), in their study conducted in Odense, Denmark, showed that women tended to score the importance of activities in urban green areas higher than men. Similar results were obtained by Tyrväinen et al. (2007) in their study conducted in Helsinki, Finland. According to de Vries et al. (2003), green areas have greater importance to women, which is the result of their preferences for spending their free time near the home environment. Also, preferences as to the level of naturalness (see: Ode et al. 2009) and design of urban green areas differ among men and women. According to Caula et al. (2009), women prefer more natural design.

The design of urban green areas is important in relation to the perceived security but also the level of crime (Jorgensen et al. 2002; Mahrous et al. 2018; Balai Kerishnan et al. 2021; Evensen et al. 2021). Among the features that might be connected with the perceived security of its users are visibility, maintenance, cleanliness, external protection, other park users and mobility facilities (see more in Polko, Kimic 2022). In general, perceived safety is greater in green spaces that are highly classified as natural (Maas et al. 2009; Sang et al. 2016). However, in the study conducted among adult park users in Poland (Polko, Kimic 2022), women, more than men, paid attention to factors providing them with a greater sense of security. In public spaces, women have a lower sense of security than men (Sutton, Farrall 2004), and this also applies to green spaces (Jorgensen et al. 2002; Polko, Kimic 2022).

Accessibility is another aspect strongly related to preferences regarding visited green areas. Not only is it strongly determined by geographical distance and potential barriers but also by possibilities and preferences for the use of different transport modes. Together with the development of urban planning concepts focused on shortening the distances to places of everyday importance, different scholars pay attention to the creation of more equitable cities in relation to green spaces accessibility – especially based on active transport modes (William et al. 2020; Guzman et al. 2021; Magrinyà et al. 2023). Gender differences related to travelling affect green exposure. For example, studies by Wu et al. (2022) show that men are more exposed to greenery while travelling as they are less restricted when travelling than women. Those differences are related to preferred and accessible transport modes and distance travelled. Women’s everyday travel distances are shorter (Frändberg, Vilhelmson 2011), and at the same time, owing to the more time spent on caring activities, more complex (Scheiner, Holz-Rau 2017). The latter strongly affects the difficulties for women to visit more attractive urban green spaces more frequently and spontaneously (Chidambaram, Scheiner 2021). These restrictions also apply to the still traditional and economically determined role of women in a family in Poland, evidenced, e.g. by the share of women taking a parental leave that reaches 99% (Ministry of Family and Social Policy, 2019; Suwada 2021). Also, the transport modes used play an important role in this regard, as confirmed by numerous studies on gender differences. Women, more often reach their places of destination by walking or using public transport, while car travels are more popular among men (Miralles-Guasch et al. 2015; Sánchez, González 2016). This also applies to the situation in Poland (Nosal-Hoy 2018). However, there are different results in countries where social norms or lack of safe infrastructure limit women’s use of public transport (Goel et al. 2023). Those differences are interrelated with urban green areas accessibility. According to studies by Schindler et al. (2022), car ownership increases travel distances to urban green areas. However, according to Ettema et al. (2016), the use of active transport modes (walking, cycling) correlates with higher satisfaction with travel, while for public transport – it is lower. As a consequence, the satisfaction related to travel can affect the overall satisfaction of the time spent in green areas.

The literature review characterised gender differences in spending free time, transport habits of women and men, sense of security in public spaces and preferences regarding the design of green areas. However, there is a lack of discussion in the literature to what extent these issues may be important in terms of visited green areas, means of transport used to reach them, distances covered and preferences in terms of development of new green areas. This research aims to make a contribution to the literature on the importance of gender differences defined in the previous studies in relation to selected aspects of greenery development in Polish conditions.

The study was conducted in Zielona Góra (Fig. 1), which is the capital of the Lubuskie region located in western Poland. According to Statistics Poland, in 2021, the city had approximately 139,677 inhabitants. The borders of Zielona Góra expanded in 2015, which was connected with the reduction of development barriers related to lack of investment areas and new residential areas (Dubicki, Kułyk 2018). As a result, Zielona Góra has become one of the most forested cities in Poland, with forest land share reaching 54.6% of the whole area of the city (Statistics Poland). The incorporation of new areas into the city boundaries (primarily forest areas), may be potentially important for better accessibility of green areas (extensive public transport, better-integrated road infrastructure investment in, e.g. bike lanes) and for the promotion of their natural assets among city residents by the local administration. The study covered a whole area of the city.

Fig. 1.

Owing to the latest expansion of the city administrative area, the efforts to establish a new spatial planning policy were a priority for city officials. It was connected with the integration of new areas into the development strategy, reorganisation of the transport system and protection of valuable spaces in the form of green areas, including natural green areas.

The data used in the study were collected using a geo-questionnaire (Fig. 2), which is an example of a public participation geographic information systems (PPGIS) tool. PPGIS can be defined as a set of methods and tools based on geographic information systems (GIS) supporting public participation in decision-making in spatial planning (Craig et al. 2002; Sieber 2006; Brown, Kytta 2014). The geo-questionnaire is an online questionnaire in the form of a geoweb tool typical of Web 2.0 features allowing public input in the form of geodata (Haklay et al. 2008; Gryl et al. 2010; Henning et al. 2013; Brown, Kytta 2014). Through the geo-questionnaire, respondents can answer standard survey questions (open-ended and closed-ended); however, they also have an opportunity to submit answers using an online map, providing data in geospatial format. While using a location question, it is also possible to supplement it with different types of questions that will be connected to the marked point. This feature is relevant for better understanding of the situation or preferences connected with the location pointed out by the respondent.

Fig. 2.

The geo-questionnaire used in the study provided features of the online computer-assisted web interview (CAWI) method; it is supplemented, however, by the interactive online map, which made it possible to collect spatial data for further GIS analysis. The software used for the study was LopiAsk. Each participant completed the questionnaire independently at any time during the four-week period in September 2019. The questionnaire included questions about basic socio-demographic characteristics of respondents, i.e. their age, gender and education level, as well as more complex spatial characteristics involving the respondents’ transport preferences, their places of residence, urban green areas they are visiting, and preferred locations and the types of new green areas in the city (see Appendix 1).

In the study, the selection of the sample was purposive, made by the respondents’ place of residence (in the studied area). They were recruited for the study using both the Internet (social media, city website and news web portals) and information in traditional local media, like newspapers. The residents were provided with a link to the website on which the study was conducted. To prevent multiple completions of the questionnaire, access to the website was limited to a single occasion. Table 1 presents the sample characteristics.

Owing to the varied quality and correctness of data collected among the respondents, the database was checked before it was spatially and statistically analysed. The analysis consisted of the deletion of responses not related to the study area, exclusion of incomplete questionnaires (e.g. without the demographic characteristics of a respondent) and spell-checking of answers to open questions. As a result of the qualitative database assessment, the number of the respondents was reduced from 477 to 261.

Following the data preparation, the spatial (GIS) and statistical analysis was performed regarding the demographic characteristics of the respondents, spatial representation of urban green areas visited by the respondents, gender differences in preferences regarding visited places and the preferences regarding the development of urban greenery.

The methodological approach to the statistical analysis of Zielona Góra inhabitants’ transport preferences was based on Partitioning Around Medoids (PAM) clustering (Kaufman, Rousseeuw 1987). Unsupervised data clustering on the dataset containing numeric data mixed with coexisting categorical features is a complex task that was the concern of many previous studies for >50 years (Gower 1967; Struyf et al. 1997; Rodrigues Lopes dos Santos, Zárate 2012; ektas, Schumann 2019). It required using the daisy function to manage mixed data types and simultaneously calculate dissimilarity matrices for numeric and non-numeric variables (Kaufman, Rousseeuw 1990), even when a few different variable types occur in the same dataset. The expression of the dissimilarity with PAM is crucial for later clustering. Furthermore, for mixed data, it is also required to use the appropriate metric for computing the pairwise distance between all the records of various data types, i.e. so-called Gower’s similarity coefficient (Gower 1971). As one of many unsupervised learning strategies, the PAM algorithm requires a precise number of clusters to be specified before the actual clustering process (Reynolds et al. 2004).

The silhouette score helps to estimate the number of clusters. It falls within the range from – one to one, i.e. from more matched with neighbour clusters (which is less optimal) to well matched to the particular cluster itself (which is a better solution), where the results <0 indicate incorrect, overlapping clusters (Rousseeuw 1987). Estimating the optimal solution relates to determining minimum dissimilarities within every single cluster and inversely maximising dissimilarities between them (Shahapure, Nicholas 2020).

A multilevel approach to statistical data analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics and a clustering algorithm, which was largely described in the previous paragraph. First, through data exploration, it was possible to discover similarities in the gender structure of the respondents and their spatial preferences. Second, it was crucial to investigate the spatial representation of urban green areas visited by the respondents and their preferences towards the future development of specific green space types. Finally, an essential part of the research was the comparative analysis to identify gender differences in visited places and preferences towards creating new urban green areas that was supported by GIS analyses and visualisations.

The research reveals commonalities and differences among men and women in preferences regarding visited green areas that were raised in research questions related not only to types of visited green areas, but also mobility patterns of reaching them and preferences on the development of new urban greenery. In general, there were fewer preferred locations indicated by men than women that were assumed as relevant regarding the share of indications. It can be justified by differences in the nature of the places visited that were characterised by the largest difference between men and women. Despite the similarities regarding the most representative and highly maintained urban green public spaces, there were also differences with respect to the level of naturalness (higher level was more popular among men), equipment for rest and children (more popular among women), and distance from the place of living (shorter for women). As a result, green areas that were more popular among men were at the same time larger in size, with a high level of naturalness and more distant from the city centre. On the other hand, women more often chose green areas closer to their place of living, which may affect higher diversity of indicated places. However, it should be noted that according to Wang et al. (2015), the imagined availability of urban green areas is more important than the geographical one. It concerns, e.g. available time and ability to cover certain distances, motivation to visit them and ease of access (Lachowycz, Jones 2013).

According to Van den Berg et al. (2003), adequate accessibility to green spaces within walking distance is important for mental health (see also: Kaplan 2001; Sullivan et al. 2004; Lee, Maheswaran 2010; Bratman et al. 2012; Wood et al. 2017). It relates to stress reduction and overall regeneration in contact with nature and being physically active in the natural environment (Lee, Maheswaran 2010; Ward Thompson et al. 2012). Also, social interactions can be facilitated by the availability of green areas (Kaźmierczak 2013; Wolch et al. 2014). As the result of our study, it can be assumed that despite the similar supply of green areas among men and women, individual choices may also play an important role regarding the exposure to benefits provided by green areas. Research conducted in Sweden has shown that women are more likely to undertake activities in urban green areas (Sang et al. 2016) and contact with greenery has a more significant impact on their mental well-being than it is the case with men. At the same time, as evidenced by research conducted in Canada by Kaczynski et al. (2009), the proximity of green areas is conducive to physical activity among women. Green areas are of great importance for people’s well-being, and research by Van den Berg et al. (2014) showed that natural greenery had the most considerable influence. However, according to the results obtained by the authors, natural green areas in Zielona Góra were visited mainly by men. In Zielona Góra, it could be associated with a greater distance of such areas from residential districts, requiring car travel and more free time, which can be linked to previous research on the most popular mode of transport among men and women (Miralles-Guasch et al. 2015; Sánchez, González 2016; Nosal-Hoy 2018) and leisure time availability (Rubiano-Matulevich, Viollaz 2019). Specific interpretations of the higher popularity of natural green areas among men can also be found in the results of earlier research conducted by Polko and Kimic (2022), which showed that women’s sense of security in green areas of a disordered or poorly maintained nature was lower than that of men’s. It may suggest that natural green areas that are not maintained in an organised manner may be less comfortable spaces for women.

The study results show that specific groups of respondents, defined through data analysis and clustering, have specific preferences associated with their gender. For example, when visiting urban green areas, most women prefer individual means of close-range transport, while men are more likely to choose public transport and travel longer distances. Travelling by car during leisure time is rare for both genders. However, it is noticeably more common among men, which can be related to general preferences for using that mode of transport (Nosal-Hoy 2018). Notably, using public transport for recreational purposes is marginal for men and women who visit green spaces. Bicycle riding is highly preferable; a large group of cyclists, among men and women, use bicycles almost exclusively as their preferred means of transport. Two distinct groups of women-only and men-only prefer to travel on foot (in relatively close range) and visibly share their preferences for other means of transport.

The study revealed both similarities and differences between men and women with respect to the last research question on preferences for the development of new urban green areas. There are similarities in relation to the most often proposed types of new areas; however, there is a difference in the level of their importance for the representatives of the surveyed genders. The difference in this regard was in relation to green playgrounds and green roofs or walls. We can refer first of all to the consequences of the traditional caring role of women in the family (Ministry of Family and Social Policy, 2019; Suwada 2021), and other studies by, e.g. Sonti et al. (2020), whereby women more often than men visit green areas with children. Second of all, women pay more attention to the maintenance of space (Polko, Kimic 2022), and such investments or interventions as green walls or roofs in the case of disorder (e.g. damaged building facade) affect the aesthetic value of the area.

According to Labus (2015), spatial planning often neglects different ways in which women and men utilise urban space, which also concerns green areas. Efforts to create equal conditions for the use of green areas are pivotal, as outlined in the UN’s 2030 Sustainable Development Goals Agenda (United Nations 2015). In the Polish context, highlighting the distinct needs of women and men and opportunities regarding leisure in green areas is crucial—taking into consideration various roles they play in family life and their implications. Given the absence of gender parity in decision-making at various governmental levels in Poland (Europe Institute for Gender Equality 2023), there is a need for greater emphasis on gender representativeness to address the needs of all genders effectively. Tools that help identify various needs are necessary, as pointed out by Carpio-Pinedo et al. (2019), and the geo-questionnaire used in our research may be significant in this regard.

Considering the aforementioned, our study significantly highlights the necessity of recognising and understanding gender differences in preferences related to urban green spaces. These identified distinctions are imperative for public participation processes in Poland, warranting increased awareness and sensitivity towards varied needs and expectations of both men and women. These differences not only illuminate divergent female and male expectations and ways of using urban green spaces but also emphasise the importance of inclusivity and representation in public participation. These findings make it clear that for more effective and inclusive public participation and decision-making processes in the realm of urban planning in Poland, genuine effort is required to acknowledge and incorporate these gender-based preferences and needs. Furthermore, our insights are crucial for enhancing the gender mainstreaming process in Poland, providing valuable data that can be instrumental in developing policies and strategies that are truly reflective of and responsive to the diverse needs of the population, thereby fostering a more inclusive and participatory approach to urban green space planning and management.

In conclusion, our study emphatically highlights the necessity of acknowledging gender-based distinctions in preferences pertaining to urban green spaces. In the light of our findings, we propose the following considerations for spatial planning policies regarding green areas:

Efforts should be made to create multifunctional green areas of various types, resulting in a greater diversity of their users as preferences differ. This approach not only accommodates the diverse needs and preferences of both genders but also ensures that urban green spaces are inclusive and accessible to all.

It is imperative to acknowledge that there is a noted similarity in the preferences and urban green space usage patterns between women and elderly individuals, as evidenced by previous studies. This parallel suggests that the insights gleaned from women’s preferences might be extrapolated and applied to broader demographic groups (de Vries et al. 2003). Concurrently, the universal appeal of well-maintained, accessible areas that offer a myriad of activities underscores the need for these spaces to be prioritised in urban planning initiatives. Moving forward, future research endeavours should cast their net wider in terms of socio-demographic factors examined, including but not limited to marital status and parental status. This broader approach will yield more comprehensive and nuanced insights into the intricate interplay between familial roles and green space usage patterns. Despite the acknowledged limitations of our study, chiefly the non-random participant selection and significant gender representation disparity, our preliminary findings provide a valuable foundation for further discourse and study on the gender perspective in urban greenery. More importantly, these initial insights offer tangible, actionable recommendations for spatial planning processes in Polish cities, with a spotlight on enhancing gender representation in public consultations. The primary takeaway from our study is the unveiling of new premises pivotal for the actualisation of gender mainstreaming policies within local governmental structures in Poland.