Race |
White |
1 |
Hispanic and Asian patients have an increased risk for GIM |
Tan MC et al. (2022)94 |
Asian |
2.83–3 |
Akpoigbe K et al. (2022)95 |
Hispanic |
2.10–5.6 |
|
Age (> 50 years) |
1.5–2.03 |
Risk increases with age, possibly due to accumulated exposure to risk factors. |
Aumpan N et al. (2021)96 |
Tan MC et al. (2020)97 |
Male gender |
1.55–2.09 |
Probably due to genetics and exposure to other risk factors |
Aumpan N et al. (2020)98 |
Leung WK et al. (2005)99 |
Chronic gastritis |
3.68–5.76 |
Chronic inflammation is leads to IM. |
Yoo YE et al. (2013)100 |
Tatsuta M et al. (1993)101 |
H. pylori infection |
2.47–3.65 |
Strong correlation with IM, especially with CagA positive strains. |
Aumpan N et al. (2021)96 |
Nguyen T et al. (2021)102 |
Family history of gastric cancer |
1.5–3.8 |
Patients with a first-degree relative with gastric cancer have an increased risk of neoplastic progression |
Nieuwenburg SAV et al. (2021)103 |
Reddy KM et al. (2006)104 |
Alcohol consumption |
1.27–1.54 |
Alcohol intake was independently associated with increased risk of developing AG and IM |
Holmes HM et al. (2021)105 |
Kim K et al. (2020)106 |
Tobacco smoking |
1.54–2.75 |
Tobacco smoking is a risk factor for gastric IM. |
Morais S et al. (2014)107 |
Thrift AP et al. (2022)108 |
Blood group A |
1.39–1.42 |
Blood group A is associated with higher risk of GIM |
Mao Y et al. (2019)109 |
Rizatto C et al. (2013)110 |
Bile reflux |
unknown |
Bile acids not only interefere with gastric mucosa but also regulate multiple carcinogenic pathways |
Wang M et al. (2023)111 |
Yu J et al. (2019)112 |
Salt consumption |
0.37–1.53 |
Salt intake may increase progression to advanced gastric precancerous lesions |
Dias-Neto M et al. (2010)113 |
Song JH et al. (2017)114 |
Industrially processed food |
unknown |
Dietary exposure to N-nitroso–containing compounds has been shown to increase the promotion of gastric carcinogenesis |
Wiseman M (2008)115 |
Jencks DS et al. (2018)116 |