Italy is a country with a great variety of beautiful and highly scenic landscapes deeply connected with the lithological-structural diversity and the long-term modelling action of exogenous and endogenous processes, whose reciprocal importance has changed over times (Soldati, Marchetti 2017). The wide latitudinal extent of the Italian territory and the articulated altitudinal ranges are mainly responsible for a marked climatic diversity which plays a fundamental role in making Italy a country with such a great landscape variability (i.e.
Besides the main mountain ranges, Italian islands are characterized by other kind of mountainous relief, often linked with active or relict volcanic activity (e.g.
Geosites are defined as
Mountain environments, due to their peculiar characteristics, provide key sites for the comprehension of Earth surface evolution through space and time (Reynard, Coratza 2016), while also offering a great potential for the development and promotion of tourism and leisure activities by planning ideal outdoor laboratories with scientific and educational purposes (e.g. Pelfini et al. 2016). Detailed analysis aimed at identifying and quantifying different values characterizing geomorphosites (see a review by Brilha 2016, Bollati et al. 2017b, Brilha 2018, Coratza, Hoblea 2018), for the selection of the most valuable ones both for conservation and promotion purposes, are currently becoming mandatory. If the aesthetic value represents the fundamental value for raising interest towards the physical landscapes, among the values usually assessed through specific methodologies there are also the scientific, including the ecologic support role, the cultural and the socio-economic values.
Moreover, potential for use of each site may include the possibility of practicing various outdoor activities (e.g. climbing, canyoning or speleology) (Bollati et al., 2016b, 2017b), linked with geomorphological features and based on lithological and structural variety. Outdoor activities, field works, field trips are in fact considered very important for getting in touch with Geosciences (e.g. Sturani et al. 2018 and references herein). Concerning climbing, this diversity deeply affects routes styles and difficulty (i.e.
This possibility of educational versatile approaches, including outdoor activities, favours also the involvement and socio-economic return for local communities coming from geoheritage management (Bollati et al. 2018). It is important to underline also that all these opportunities should not disregard the risk scenario assessment due both to active geomorphic processes, especially when they are changing under changing climatic conditions (e.g. Diolaiuti et al. 2006, Bollati et al. 2013), and to the practice of extreme sports (e.g. Panizza, Mennella 2007, Motta et al. 2009).
An overview on some iconic mountain landscapes, that may be considered hot-spots of Italian geomorphodiversity, will be presented in this paper. The structural and lithological heterogeneity together with the different types of climate, that underpin such a diversity of landscapes and the development of a rich and varied tourist offer, especially when linked with outdoor activities, will be underlined. Their inclusion in the regional and national Italian geosites catalogues will be also analysed.
In this paragraph a selection of some of the most important Italian mountain landscapes is proposed, examining the relations existing between geological and geomorphological features (i.e. scientific value) and the development of both some popular outdoor activities (i.e. potential for use) and other relevant values of geomorphosites (e.g. cultural, socio-economic, ecological support role). The selected cases are characterized by the common high aesthetic value that represents the foundation for promoting tourism, leisure and also outdoor education ideas. In Figure 1 the distribution of the study cases is illustrated. For each lithological landscape type, after a general introduction, a brief overview of individual cases will be provided, focusing on:
Location of the selected landscapes in the Italian context (the background image is courtesy of Google Earth). the most relevant processes and related landforms as fundamentals in assessing landscape scientific values, the influence of geomorphic processes on other assessment values and the peculiarities of each site considering these additional values (i.e. cultural, socio-economic, potential for use), the site potentiality for further opportunities in tourism, outdoor and recreational activities, the insertion in the national geosites catalogue (ISPRA 2018) or in Regional geosites databases.Fig. 1
In Figure 1 granite landscapes are indicated in red, limestone and dolostone landscapes are indicated in light blue and, finally, silt, sandstones and ophiolitic landscapes are reported in green.
In Table 1 data regarding the study cases are summarized.
Summary of the analysed features of the proposed study areas.
Code | Study case | Italian Region | Mountain range/region | Other form of official recognition and protection | Geosites Catalogues | Lithology/ies | Geomorphological features | Outdoor activities | Other relevant values | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Primary processes | Secondary processes | Landscape features | |||||||||
A | Mont Blanc Massif | Aosta Valley | Western Italian Alps | Espace Mont Blanc, SIC IT1204010 | ISPRA | Granites | Glacial & gravity action | Chemical weathering | Steep slopes | Climbing | Cultural: transboundary area and alpinism history |
B | Mottarone Massif | Piedmont | Western Italian Alps | Regione Piemonte (for other aspects) | Granites | Chemical weathering | Water action | Residual relief with tors and inselbergs | Climbing | Cultural and socio-economic: cave and mines | |
C | Gallura | Sardinia | North Eastern Sardinia | Regional protection on some specific sites | ISPRA | Granites | Chemical weathering | Water runoff, gravity | Residual reliefs with inselbergs, tors, rounded blocks and tafonis | Climbing, canyoning | Cultural, archaeological, socio-economic: quarries |
D | Grigne Massif | Lombardy | Central Italian Prealps | Regional Park of the Grigne | ISPRA, Regione Lombardia | Limestones | Karst | Glacial | Glacio-karstic ipo- and epi-landforms | Climbing, speleology | Cultural: Leonardo Da Vinci artistic works, tradition of climbing |
E | Dolomites | Trentino-Alto Adige | Eastern Italian Alps | UNESCO World Heritage List | / | Dolomites | Gravity | Cryoclastism, glacial | Towers and scree slopes | Climbing | Cultural: painting, photography, poetry, history of Alpinism; socio-economic: tourism |
F | Supramonte | Sardinia | Central Eastern Sardinia | Regional protection on some specific sites | ISPRA | Limestones, dolostones | Karst | Gravity, fluvio-karst | Hypogeum and surface karstic landforms | Climbing, speleology, canyoning | cultural, archaelogical, socio-economic |
G | Pietra di Bismantova mesa | Emilia Romagna | Northern Apennines | National Park of the Tuscan-Emilia Apennine | ISPRA, Emilia Romagna Region | Sandstone | Selected erosion & gravity | Weaathering | Mesa, landslides | Climbing | Cultural: Dante Alighieri's description, history of Alpinism; Archaeological: Bronze Age and early Iron Age settlements; Ecologic support role: endemic species |
H | Orcia Valley | Tuscany | Central Apennines | UNESCOW World Heritage List | ISPRA (not Radicofani case) | Shales | Water runoff | Gravity | Calanchi, shallow landslides | Cultural: Radicofani Castle; Ecologic support role: endemic species | |
I | Bardi ophiolitic spur | Emilia Romagna | Northern Apennines | ISPRA, Emilia Romagna Region | Basalts and red jaspers | Differential erosion | Gravity | Steep slopes | Cultural: Bardi Medieval Castle; Ecologic support role: endemic species | ||
J | Terra Rossa | Piedmont | Western Italian Alps | Veglia Devero Natural Park | / | Serpentinite | Chemical weathering | Gravity | Residual ridges | Alpinism | |
K | Pietra Parcellara | Emilia Romagna | Northern Apennines | Regional Natural Reserve | ISPRA, Emilia Romagna Region | Serpentinite | Differential erosion | Gravity | Monadnocks/Residual ridges | Ecologic support role: endemic species | |
L | Sasso del Drago | Lombardia | Central Italian Alps | Serpentinite | Differential erosion | Rocky cliff | Climbing |
Granites produce very famous landscapes all over the world (Migoń 2006). These magmatic rocks generate in context of active plate boundaries and, successively, as a consequence of uplift and exhumation of batholites formed in the depth, peculiar landscapes originate in correspondence of their outcrop. The exhumation of batholites favours the development of extensional fractures (i.e. exfoliation) that usually set up following the structures of the magmatic rocks (e.g. flow lines). Chemical composition of the most common families of granites allows for specific weathering processes (i.e. hydrolysis of feldspars) whose intensity may vary as a function of the climatic context and the duration of the exposure to the meteoric agents and it is in some case used as a proxy for dating surfaces (Matsukura, Matsuoka 1991). In the Alpine climate contexts, like the one of the
Granite-related geosites (e.g. Migoń et al. 2017) are very famous and cultural aspects linked to granites (Migoń, Latocha 2008) may change from one region to another, implying relationships with human settlements and territorial boundaries. Moreover, their cultural value increased, as recently underlined in literature (see a review by De Wever et al. 2017), for the re-evaluation of exploitation of granites in the framework of ornamental materials and resources of a territory.
In the following paragraphs a comparison among granites landscapes in the Western Italian Alps and in Sardinia is proposed, delineating different features related to their own morphoclimatic context.
The
Comparison among Italian granites landscapes characteristic of the Alpine areas and of the Sardinia island. a) View on the Mont Blanc Massif (case study A, Fig. 1) taken from the debris covered surface of the Miage Glacier in the Veny Valley, b) San Giovanni Battista Church (V century B.C.) in the Montorfano village (Verbano-Cusio-Ossola province) and a detail of pink and white granites extracted in the surrounding areas and used also for buildings in Milan city centre (e.g. San Carlo al Corso Vittorio Emanuele), c) the inselberg of Mount Pulchiana with, in the foreground, a tafone used as a shelter (Aggius, North Eastern Sardinia) (case study C, Fig. 1), d) climbing on the granitic walls and tafonis of Capo Testa (North Eastern Sardinia) (case study C, Fig. 1), e) columns and blocks defined by erosion along the net of fractures in the granite of Capo Testa (Gallura, North-eastern Sardinia), f) a big tafone in the area of the Bear of Palau where, inside the most hidden cavities, the granite is altered by hydrolysis.
In this area, the aesthetic value is universally recognized by tourists that may visit the area using a recently modernized cable-lift that allows to cross the massif from the Italian side to the French side. Moreover, alpinism represents an important attraction due to the relatively long tradition. Every year thousands of alpinists from all over the world approach these areas for mountain ascents and climbing activities.
The cultural value of the area has been recently put under attention by the Transboundary Cooperation Project between Italy, France and Switzerland (Espace Mont-Blanc 2018). The Mont Blanc Massif is inserted in the ISPRA catalogue, even if, by now, only some elements of its geo-history are considered: the moraines related to debris covered Miage glacier. The latter, that may be considered as a part of the very huge glacial system of the Mont Blanc Massif, is important due to the ecologic support role represented by vegetation growing on the supraglacial coverage (Pelfini et al. 2012, Bollati et al. 2013, 2015). Moreover, for this and others reasons, the
On Alpine granites, many educational activities related to climbing have been already developed, similarly to the already cited cases of Spain (García-Rodríguez et al. 2017), and the
Besides the typical pink granites of Mottarone Massif, in the surroundings areas other varieties of Permian granites, genetically related, crop out. Among them, Montorfano granites are characteristically white, and also equipped for climbing, while the green variety outcrops in the surroundings of Mergozzo village (Boriani et al. 1988). The Verbano-Cusio-Ossola Province district is well known and relevant from a socio-economic and cultural point of view due to the presence of several and varied rock extraction spots, among which granites are very relevant (Cavallo, Dino 2014). Extraction of rock material offers, at first, resources for the territory, used as building and ornamental stone for cultural assets (Fig. 2b) but also, especially in recent times, cultural opportunities. Indeed, ancient extraction sites are now geotourism attractions (e.g. in the cited area:
The Mottarone massif is not included in any of the geosite list covering the Italian territory, but the Piemonte Region catalogue of naturalistic and cultural assets within the Regional Landscape Plan contains other naturalistic sites (i.e. peatbogs) located within the massif.
The Sardinian granitic batholith widely crops out along the eastern side of the island. It was intruded in the poly-deformed and metamorphosed Palaeozoic basement during the Variscan Orogeny, from 350 to 290 Ma BP (Carmignani et al. 2001, Rossi et al. 2009). During this long time period, changes occurred in the geodynamic framework, leading to a great diversity in the structural and compositional characteristics of the various intrusions. Uplift of the Variscan chain provoked the dissection of the granite basement and led to partial erosion of the granite plutons. Later, the Oligo-Miocene anticlockwise rotation movement of the Corso-Sardinian block and the Alpine collision, produced major faulting and tilting in the granite batholith.
The granitic Gallura landscape is characterized by jagged profile reliefs following the major fractures lines, rounded and often isolated landforms, wide depressions, horizontal or gently inclined plateaux determined by tectonics and by the alternation of morphogenetic processes, also in relation to different climate conditions. Along the dense joint network, intense modelling of relief took place, giving the landscape its characteristic features, modelled at a small to medium scale by physical and chemical processes, giving rise to inselbergs, rounded boulders, tors and tafoni (Fig. 2e). The main modelling of the granitic basement occurred during past periods of intense weathering, mainly related to climatic context (Melis et al. 2017). Currently, chemical and physical processes act at a lower intensity, but their activity can be tested inside the cavities within blocks and tafoni, where the granular surface often appears wet and weathered (Fig. 2f).
Granitic relief of the Gallura region has always been strictly interconnected with culture and life of the local communities, giving this area high cultural significance through time. Strong relationships have always occurred between people and granitic landscapes. Resistant building materials, often already available in blocks isolated by the joint network, were of great importance to the local population. Also the impressiveness of the relief (Fig. 2e) has become part of daily life, socio-economic needs and human imagination. Natural cavities have always been a geographic factor accompanying people throughout history, serving as shelters, burial sites or stabling for animals (Fig. 2c).
Peculiar geographical and geomorphological features of Sardinia granitic region offer opportunities for
Currently some of the Sardinian granitic landscapes are protected and included in official regional lists of protected areas. The inselberg of
Limestones and dolostones are rocks differently susceptible to chemical dissolution. Limestone is particularly prone to dissolution of calcium carbonates in hypogenic and epigenic conditions, favoured by high temperatures and availability of water. The content of CO2 in water, also varying for the mixing from different sources, is another factor, together with secondary porosity, that allows faster and more efficient chemical reactions. Besides these aspects, vegetation coverage may favour the process too (i.e. biodissolution). The specific term of
From the outdoor activities point of view, limestones and dolostones provide a double offer addressed to different tourist and sport targets. Concerning the epigenic modelling, limestone, especially when not smoothed by the frequent passage of climbers, is a really appreciated rock for climbing activities. Karst landforms like furrows known as rinnenkarren or small hollows require a high technique degree and precision: very impressive are the landforms of the
Geosites, modelled in limestone and dolostones, may vary widely in a spatial scale in terms of both hypogenic and epygenic landforms (e.g. De Waele et al. 1998, Soldati 2010, Coratza et al. 2012). Two cases from the Central and Eastern Italian Alps, together with a case in Sardinia, will be described in the following paragraphs.
One of the most representative and well known glacio-karst landscape of the Central Italian Prealps characterizes the
Selection of Italian limestone and dolostones landscapes in Alps and in Sardinia island.
a) Moncodeno karst landscape (case study D, Fig. 1), towards North, taken from the Brioschi Hut on the Northern Grigna (2399 m a.s.l.) (Central Italian Prealps), b) panoramic view of Sasso Lungo Group (Val Gardena, Dolomites, Eastern Italian Alps) (case study E, Fig. 1), c) canyoning down the Flumineddu river (Supramonte, Central Eastern Sardinia) (case study F, Fig. 1), d) Erosional landform down the Doronè canyon and stream (Supramonte, Central Eastern Sardinia) (case study F, Fig. 1).
The Grigne Massif that, moreover, is only 1,5 hours by car from the Milan metropolitan area, is defined by Corti, Anghileri (2003) as a
The regional geosites catalogue of Lombardia and the interregional list (Various Authors 2008) considered the area for its stratigraphic and glaciokarstic importance. Also the ISPRA catalogue includes the Moncodeno hypogenic system as geosite.
The juxtaposition of contrasting lithologies and geological structures, such as dolomite rocks overlying clayey rock types, undergoing cryoclastic and gravity processes, is responsible for the peculiarity of the
This area, besides its outstanding scientific and educational value, has important additional values. The aesthetic value is mainly linked with verticality, variety of forms, monumentality and colour contrasts, and it is also responsible for the socio-economic interest in the landforms. In fact, the Dolomites are one of the most attractive mountainous areas in the world, enjoyed by thousands of visitors every year (Gianolla et al. 2009). The dense network of climbing and hiking paths, developed during the last decades, makes this range one of Europe’s most complete and varied destinations for mountaineers and climbers (Panizza 2009, Soldati 2010, Marchetti et al. 2017). Dolomites are particularly famous for providing some of the longest traditional multi-pitch and sport climbing routes in the world. Moreover, several hiking trails and fixed-rope routes, ranging from easy to demanding, are offered as well. These peaks, hosting about 170 historic
The Supramonte area covers a range of landscapes that goes from the characteristic eastern rocky coast to the inland mountainous relief towards the west, reaching heights of more than 1,000 m a.s.l. (Mt. Corrasi, 1,463 m a.s.l.). Intense karst processes have generated spectacular hypo- and epigenic landforms and have developed, mainly controlled by tectonics, during the Eocene, with the emersion of the Mesozoic sediments, during the Oligo-Miocene tectonic phases, and in the course of Middle Pleistocene in more wet and warm interglacial periods. The karst processes are still active, but the more intense phases and deepening of many canyons characterizing the surface hydrographic system, took place with the beginning of the Mio-Pliocene sea regression, about 5 M years BP (Antonioli, Ferranti 1992).
Supramonte as a whole constitutes a unique landscape unit in which natural aspects largely overrule the human imprint on the environment and its great naturalistic value has been recognised at a national level. The area was inserted in the National Park of Gennargentu, legally defined but unfortunately never put into practice.
Nowadays, Supramonte is a mountainous uninhabited region bordered by small villages. Nevertheless, many signs of past and recent human presence are found all around the region. The archaeological research discovered traces of ancient settlements going back to the Upper Paleolithic. Among the many sites of interest, many caves can be mentioned:
The rich diversity of surface and subterranean landforms and the quite wilderness of the whole area, make it a strong call for the lovers of the active tourism and of some extreme sports. The harsh rocky relief and high vertical cliffs, controlled by tectonics and lithology, are widely known and frequented by climbers from all over the world during all the year. A multipitch and very difficult route (
Along the many gorges, canyoning outdoor activity is largely practised. The prevalent underground water flows, and the climate, make this area suitable for canyoning during quite all seasons of the year. Several guide books concerning canyoning and climbing in this area of Sardinia are published and frequently re-edited and updated.
Many of the underground and surface forms of this territory undergo different kinds of regional protection. The
Sedimentary rocks, characterized by different grain size components, allow for the development of different landscapes mainly related to their different susceptibility to erosion. Water runoff on clays is responsible for the generation of disordering in drainage systems, mainly characterized by networks of rills and gullies named
Climbing activity on sedimentary rocks, particularly on conglomerates and sandstones, is popular especially if accompanied by scenic and/or cultural features like religious spots (e.g.
Pure clays are usually affected by intense water runoff and, for this reason, stability problems are common along slopes. Nevertheless, in some cases in Central Italy, historical settlements associated with these geomorphological settings and relevant cultural assets are located on the slopes (e.g.
Besides the local outcrops of ophiolites in the Alps, representing the remnants of ancient oceans obducted within mountain ranges during orogenic phases, big boulders of these ultramafic rocks are often spread within marine clays (i.e. olistolithes) in the Apennines. In the latter contexts, the scattered kilometric ophiolitic boulders are usually highly resistant to erosion and isolated monadnocks emerge from the less resistant surrounding clays (Pellegrini, Vercesi 2017). These rocks have a high scientific value from a paleogeographical point of view. Locally, the modelling of these rocks favours the development of blades, following the schistosity, or of hollows of different dimensions and shapes, while chemical weathering of femic minerals results in the origin of a peculiar red coloured patina due to ferric minerals oxidation. Ophiolitic walls morphologies (i.e. hollows and blades), deriving from the ultramafic rock weathering, may represent suitable elements that favour climbers, especially the beginners. From a scientific point of view also the ecological value is relevant since the colonization of particular ecosystems is favoured (Roberts, Proctor 2012). Cultural aspects are in some case linked with the development of legends and particular names conferred to ophiolites localities. As geosites, ophiolitic rocks have always represented attractive features (e.g. El Hadi et al. 2011) and their scientific value is high, as previously explained. The same happens for
The
Sandstones, clay and ophiolites Italian landscapes in Apennines and Alps.
a) Northern slope of Pietra di Bismantova rock slab (case study G, Fig. 1), b) calanchi and shallow landslides characterizing the surrounding of Radicofani in the Orcia Valley (case study H, Fig. 1), c) Bardi castle (Parma Apennines) build on ophiolite outcrop (case study I, Fig. 1), d) “Sasso del Drago” climbing wall (case study L; Fig. 1), e) Punta Terra Rossa (or Waserhorn) from Bocchetta d’Aurona/Kaltawasser Gletcher (Verbano-Cusio-Ossola Province, Western Italian Alps; photo courtesy of E. Zanoletti) (case study J, Fig. 1), f) Pietra Parcellara (Trebbia Valley, Northern Apennines) (case study K, Fig. 1).
From a cultural point of view, the Pietra di Bismantova and its surroundings have received high degree of attention since long time ago and remains of early human settlements are dated back to the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age. The verticality and monumentality of this slab, clearly visible even from plain, have inspired many artists through the centuries. The Dante’s description of his ascent to the mount of Purgatory, compared to the trail going up the Pietra di Bismantova, can be quoted as an example. The Pietra is also characterised by high value for the history of alpinism: the first ascent is dated 1922 along the path called
The Pietra di Bismantova is part of the territory of the National Park of the Tuscan-Emilia Apennines and its importance as geosite is recognised at national and regional level, being listed in both the ISPRA and Emilia-Romagna region geosite lists.
The Orcia Valley is one of the Italian sites inserted in the UNESCO World Heritage List due mainly to its cultural value. It is located in the Siena Province (Central Apennines). Inside this area, clayey outcrops, related to the Pliocene marine transgression phases, are predominant. They are modelled generating spectacular
The Orcia valley includes geosites inserted in the ISPRA database and representative of erosion processes but the Radicofani area is not considered, even if particularly relevant (Bollati et al. 2016a).
Ophiolitic green coloured rocks associated with deep-sea sedimentary rocks, the latter less resistant to erosion, offer unique and impressive mountain landscapes in Northern Apennines (case study I, K Fig. 1; Fig. 4c and 4f). In this context, the differential erosion between ophiolites and softer sediments is particularly evident. The stability and difficult accessibility of the ophiolitic ridges favoured the presence of human settlements and strongholds, as they could be easily defended. This can be deduced from some local place names:
Where the ultramafic rocks outcrop as elongated stripes, superficial modelling generates peculiar mountain shapes like extended ridges. This kind of rocks, undergoing typical weathering that favours the development of a red coloured patina, supports impressive landscapes in both the Alps and the Apennines. In the Alpine context, an evident example is represented by the ridge of the
Chemical composition of serpentinite outcropping at Pietra Parcellara allows for the colonization of an endemic flora (Vercesi et al. 2005), underlining its high ecological support role. Indeed, a special Natural Reserve was set in the area in virtue of this peculiar vegetation and the site is listed in both the ISPRA and Emilia-Romagna region geosite lists.
Serpentinoschists outcrops are scattered inside mountain chains and the recurrence of related climbing walls is rare. A spot located in the Central Italian Alps has been selected as very representative (case study L, Fig. 1; Fig. 4d). It is the
The 12 iconic selected landscapes, here illustrated at different scale, are representative of geodiversity of the Italian mountains and they clearly show the important role played by lithology, stratigraphy and tectonics, in conditioning the superficial modelling and, as a consequence, the development of leisure and sports activities. They are surely not exhaustive of the geodiversity and geo-richness of the Italian territory, but the recent researches performed at these sites allow to evidence the importance of the geologic and geomorphologic support for promoting geosites, sites of cultural interest, opportunities for outdoor (sport and leisure) and educational activities in the field (Pelfini et al. 2016).
The presented sites have been recognized, under different modalities, as part of the cultural heritage (Panizza, Piacente, 2003), that takes into consideration the geological and geomorphological context of the Italian territory (Soldati, Marchetti 2017). Two of them (i.e. J –
The focus of this climbing routes difficulty is linked with cliffs morphologies depending on structures or minerals weathering (i.e. A, B, C, D, E, L study cases), canyoning is linked with riverbed characteristics and water discharge (i.e. F study case), speleology is related to the morphology of hypogenic karst once again to be put in relation with water discharge or glacial exharation (i.e. D study case).
Each one of these outdoor activities, linked with geological-geomorphological features, is considered of great importance both for Geosciences and Physical education favouring multidisciplinary educational approaches (Bollati et al. 2018), as described in the case of the
Moreover, where ecological support role and cultural values are high, multidisciplinary educational projects addressed to schools of different level may be successful too. Nevertheless, geological characteristics as well as geomorphological processes are responsible also for potential hazard, generating risk for users (Motta et al. 2009 for climbing sites) and also for geosites themselves (Pelfini, Bollati 2014). However, at the same time, outdoor activities may become key situations for risk education, carried out in safety conditions, as mentioned for the Sardinia and Emilia-Romagna study cases (Coratza, De Waele 2012, Bollati et al. 2017b).
In conclusion, the hot spots of the Italian relief geomorphodiversity presented here underline the importance of structural and lithological diversity in combination with climate influence. The resulting landscapes are representative of the Italian geoheritage (Soldati, Marchetti 2017) characterized by specific values: scientific (e.g. geomorphological, educational, ecological), aesthetic, cultural, socio-economic. Moreover, their potential for use in term of sports, leisure, tourism and school activities is very high. All discussed sites, analogously to innumerable others in Italy and worldwide, are generally characterized by different kinds of fruition (cultural, sport activities, naturalistic). All the landscape features, as a whole, allow us to better understand concepts like time and space in relation with landscape evolution and human presence helping in overcoming the concept of the immutability of the geological landscape and to get in touch with its dynamicity. Moreover, this has a great importance for developing Geosciences education strategies as it allows to get in touch with Geosciences in an appealing way, to know and understand the control role of lithology in the modelling of the landscape and to get awareness about the active geomorphic processes, including Man-triggered ones.
Finally, the selected examples are representative of the possibility of enhancing of such environments under different perspectives, not disregarding the involvement of local communities and, for this reason, favouring the socio-economic return deriving from mountain geoheritage management.