Emotional Determinants of Snack Consumption by Polish Consumers

Emotion is a response to the cognitive appraisal of stimuli from the environment and is an integral part of human behavior (Frayn et al., 2018). Consumers often engage emotions in decision-making processes (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008; Zaltman, 2003; Damasio, 1994), including food choices where emotions frequently guide behavior (Godet et al., 2022). Research has confirmed the link between emotional states and food choice and consumption (Ljubičić et al., 2023). Most studies in this area focus on the relationship between negative emotions and eating behaviors (Fuente Gonzales et al., 2022). However, some researchers point to a connection between positive emotions and food consumption (Devonport et al., 2019; Reichenberger et al., 2020; Ljubičić et al., 2023). Therefore, the term “emotional eating” is often used to describe increased food consumption as a reaction to emerging emotions, both positive and negative. Emotional eating affects both overweight and obese individuals, as well as those maintaining a normal weight. It has been found that the latter consume less food in response to emotions than overweight or obese individuals (Frayn et al., 2018). Emotional eating has also been proven to be positively associated with waist circumference, abdominal obesity, body mass index (BMI), and obesity according to the percentage of body fat (Betancourt-Núñez et al., 2022). It is important to emphasize that overweight and obesity have many secondary health consequences, such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and an increased risk of certain cancers (Obesity and Overweight, n.d.). They also constitute a significant economic burden on society (Scarborough et al., 2011; Shimul et al., 2021).

Regarding negative emotions, their appearance triggers a range of physiological reactions that can either promote a lack of appetite or reduce food intake, or increase food consumption (Betancourt-Núñez et al., 2022). High stimulation arousal in response to negative emotions (e.g., fear, anger) may reduce consumption, while negative emotions felt at a moderate level may increase it (Reichenberger et al., 2020). This has been especially verified about stress. Although stress is most commonly viewed as a negative stimulus, it can occasionally be interpreted as a positive response that stimulates and encourages activity (Ljubičić et al., 2023). In situations of strong, sudden stress, norepinephrine inhibits appetite, while in chronic stress, cortisol stimulates it (Ljubičić et al., 2023). Empirical evidence has shown that eating habits are modified under the influence of stress (Borsellino et al., 2020).

Studies on emotional eating behaviors suggest that negative mood, sadness, tension, and emotional instability precede an increase in food consumption (Devonport et al., 2019). However, stress, boredom, and depression were the emotions most often identified as those affecting higher food intake (Fuente Gonzales et al., 2022). It has been reported that food consumption distracts a person from experiencing negative emotions (Betancourt-Núñez et al., 2022), and is also a way to fill the void that can arise in situations of sadness, depression, social isolation, or other stressful life events (Ljubičić et al., 2023). Negative emotions strongly associated with eating behaviors include anxiety, sadness, loneliness, worry, boredom, anger, stress, and depression (Fuente Gonzales et al., 2022). Depression is linked with stress, negative mood, loneliness, and social isolation, all of which contribute to emotional eating (Ljubičić et al., 2023). Additionally, tendencies to experience boredom, aggression, and anger are positively associated with emotional eating (Devonport et al., 2019).

Research indicates that positive emotions play a significant role in enhancing food intake (Reichenberger et al., 2020; Fuente Gonzales et al., 2022). It has been observed that positive moods are closely linked to socialization and food consumption. Specifically, individuals tend to experience greater enjoyment and prolong their mealtime when dining with familiar and amicable companions, leading to increased food consumption. Furthermore, past studies suggest that people often opt for healthier food choices when experiencing positive emotions (Li et al., 2021).

As indicated, both positive and negative emotions influence an increase in food consumption, yet negative emotions are one of the most important causes of excessive consumption and emotional eating (Reichenberger et al., 2020).

Studies have shown that emotions affect not only the increase in consumption, but also the type of food that consumers reach for under their influence (Devonport et al., 2019). Individuals who engage in emotional eating tend to snack more frequently (Rachmawati et al., 2019). Snacking is eating food, often without hunger, between main meals. Emotional eating is positively associated with higher consumption of tasty, high-energy, sweet, and high-fat snacks (Rachmawati et al., 2019). This pattern is observed in both men and women across different life stages (Fuente Gonzales et al., 2022), particularly regarding increased consumption of fast food, salty snacks, sweet high-fat foods, or high-energy foods such as cakes, biscuits, cookies, ice cream, chocolate and its derivatives, candies, and artificially sweetened beverages (Betancourt-Núñez et al., 2022). Stress and negative emotions often lead to the consumption of high-energy, nutrient-poor foods (Devonport et al., 2019). It has been proven that consuming tasty dishes (usually rich in sugar or fat) provides immediate pleasure and reward (positive affective responses), which can lessen the impact of negative emotions (Betancourt-Núñez et al., 2022). As studies show overweight or obese individuals prefer sweet-tasting snacks (e.g., cakes, cookies, biscuits) or sweet and milky drinks, while underweight individuals tend to choose cooked snacks, fruits, and dairy products (Rachmawati et al., 2019).

When it comes to how our emotions affect what we eat, it is interesting to note that positive emotions can lead to both healthy and unhealthy eating habits. For instance, research by Moss et al. (2021) found that positive emotions tend to kickstart the consumption of nutritious foods like fruits. On the flip side, another study (Evers et al., 2013) revealed that positive emotions can also prompt indulgence in unhealthy snacks. Age plays a role too. Among children, positive emotions seem to correlate with more unhealthy snack consumption, while among young adults, negative emotions are more closely linked to such behavior (Moss et al., 2021). Parents also influence what children eat, especially in terms of sweet snacks. For instance, they might reward good behavior or achievements with sugary treats. Furthermore, snacks can serve as a way to manage behavior and emotions during interactions between children and their parents (Jansen et al., 2021).

Changes in food consumption behaviors due to fluctuations in emotional states may be induced by situations or events that go beyond an individual’s daily routine. The COVID-19 pandemic, for instance, may have altered consumers’ emotional states and thereby changed consumer behaviors (Borsellino et al., 2020). In the literature, food choices are recognized as dynamic and evolving throughout life; they are also considered quite stable and largely driven by habits, especially over shorter periods. Significant changes or turning points in food choice patterns are usually initiated by important life events. Research suggests that the COVID-19 pandemic and related restrictions affecting daily life have caused, at least temporarily, changes in the patterns of food purchasing and consumption for a large share of consumers (Jansen et al., 2021).

Some research findings (Ben Hassen et al., 2020; Ben Hassen et al., 2021) have indicated that some individuals reduced their consumption of unhealthy food (e.g., sweets, desserts, cookies, and biscuits) during the pandemic, adopting healthier eating habits, particularly seeking to strengthen their immune system. However, this trend varied across countries. For instance, in Italy, Denmark, Norway, and the United States, there was an increase in the consumption of highly processed, high-fat, or high-sugar foods (including chocolate, chips, and snacks). This was more common among women, who tended to eat more food, explained by the fact that women were more depressed, stressed, and restless, leading to emotional eating (Li et al., 2021). Emotions, as a predictor of the mental health of society, also account for changes in eating habits during the pandemic. Studies on the scale of negative emotions among the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic have reported the prevalence of stress at 29.6%, anxiety 31.9%, and depression 33.7% (Salari et al., 2020). Social isolation, uncertainty, and the potential adverse effects of illness significantly altered eating behaviors, increasing the scale of dysfunctional eating habits (such as binge eating, emotional eating, impulsive or compulsive eating) as well as the purchase of comfort foods (unhealthy junk foods).

Considering the role of emotions in changing the level of food consumption, including the propensity to reach for snacks, we resolved to analyze this issue in more detail. The aim of this article is to verify how different emotional states determine food consumption, including the desire to reach for snacks. The following research hypotheses were formulated:

H1: Individuals who increase their food consumption in response to negative emotions (NE) rate their financial situation worse than other sample segments (PE, WE, BE).

H2: Individuals who increase their food consumption in response to negative emotions (NE) have a negative health profile characterized by:

a poorer assessment of general health,

H3: The tendency to reach for snacks differs between sample segments depending on the emotional state experienced and the flavor of the snack:

During positive emotions, PE consumers are more likely to reach for salty snacks (chips, snacks, crackers, pretzels) than other segments (NE, WE, BE).

To achieve the set objectives, a nationwide study was conducted using the Computer-Assisted Web Interviewing (CAWI) method on a representative sample of 707 respondents who had purchased food. The samples were representative for Polish adults citizens according to gender, age, and place of residence. The research was conducted by a specialised research agency certified by ESOMAR (European Society for Opinion and Market Research). The structure of the research sample, based on selected socio-demographic characteristics as well as physical condition and health status, is presented in Table 1. The study was positively reviewed by the Research Ethics Committee for research involving human participants at the Poznań University of Economics and Business.

In constructing research tools, a method commonly used in consumer behavior sciences, the masked method (deception), was employed. This means that the actual purpose of the research was concealed from its participants (Brzeziński, 2004). Participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire consisting of fourteen questions in the main part and ten questions in the expanded metric part. The results presented in the article come from this study and are part of a larger research project concerning the emotional determinants of food consumption. The specific objectives of the study were as follows:

to analyze the consumer profile based on socio-demographic characteristics in the context of changes in consumption under the influence of emotions,

To verify the research hypotheses, two types of snacks were distinguished: salty (chips, snacks, crackers, pretzels) and sweet (cookies, chocolates, candies, ice cream, candy bars).

A statistical cluster analysis (k-means) was performed to check if there were segments among the respondents showing increased food consumption depending on the emotions experienced (including the valence of emotions - negative/positive emotions). This data exploration method divided respondents into homogeneous groups based on their answers so that each group contained individuals whose responses were similar. The cluster analysis was based on responses to questions about the impact of the emotional states experienced by the respondent on the amount of food consumed. The EMAQ scale (Emotional Appetite Questionnaire) was used to determine the emotional attitude toward food consumption, which has been validated and then developed in many studies (Bilici et al., 2020; Bourdier et al., 2017; Geliebter & Aversa, 2003; Nolan et al., 2010). Positive emotional states such as being happy, relaxed, cheerful, enthusiastic, and self-satisfied were distinguished, as well as negative states like being sad, bored, bad, restless, frustrated, tired, depressed, and scared.

Basic descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation) were calculated to compare the results for each group, considering the criterion of increased food consumption during positive/negative emotional experiences.

Appropriate statistical tests were conducted for the verification of the research hypotheses: one-way ANOVA for data with a normal distribution, and the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test for data without a normal distribution. Post-hoc tests were conducted where appropriate. The significance level was set at p=0.05. SPSS Statistics software was used to perform the analyses.

Unhealthy snacks, rich in energy, sugar, and salt, have a negative impact on consumers’ health, and their excessive consumption significantly contributes to the rise in overweight and obesity in society (Almoraie Karlsson et al., 2021). It seems that promoting healthy snacks with high nutritional content through education is important for improving health and reducing the risk of diseases, but it may be ineffective due to the emotional motivations for their consumption. The results of our study confirmed not only the emotional patterns of food consumption but also the emotional nature of snack consumption. Both positive and negative emotions shape food consumption, but negative ones have a greater impact, consistent with the findings of Saine and Zhao (2021). Cluster analysis revealed four patterns of emotional eating, three of which (WE, NE, and PE), covering over 78% of the respondents, indicate the influence of emotions (Figure 1). The most negative emotions influencing food consumption in all three segments were loneliness (ranking 2nd in WE and NE, and 3rd in PE) and sadness (ranking 3rd and 1st, respectively, in WE and NE). These emotions were often highlighted as negative consequences of the pandemic, leading to increased consumption of unhealthy snacks. This suggests that the negative impact of the pandemic may have been one of the factors increasing appetite and food consumption. Individuals experiencing negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, and pandemic-related stress were more likely to reach for snacks as a way of coping with these emotions. Thus consumption could serve as an emotional function and as a coping mechanism during challenging situations / facing difficulties.

Experiencing emotions leads to a greater craving for sweet snacks than for salty ones. The sweet taste of snacks is perceived as a way to soothe negative feelings and a source of pleasure. Wołosiak et al. (2016) suggest that consuming sugars and other sweet substances additionally provides pleasure due to the production of endorphins, often referred to as happiness hormones. Sweetness can act as a motivating factor for consumption, hence it is reasonable to assume that this attribute will play a crucial role in consumer communications. Associating a product with sweetness may translate into its being preferred and selected. Decoupling the sweet taste from snacks opens up new avenues for promoting more beneficial snacking options.

Linking specific categories of snacks to emotions being experienced may have serious consequences in terms of reinforcing unhealthy dietary behaviors. Emotions are treated as triggers for certain behaviors, which over time become habits. Snack consumption may be tied to habits acquired in childhood and youth, then perpetuated in adulthood and maturity, and passed on to subsequent generations. Using sweet snacks as a reward for good behavior or consolation for a sad child create a conditioned response, in which the young consumer learns such behavior and acquires a routine. Therefore, it is crucial to promote healthy dietary patterns among parents and children in emotional contexts, based on healthy snacks and shifting the narrative around food discourse (so that food serves neither as a reward, nor as a punishment).

Research has shown a strong link between emotions and snack consumption, revealing certain characteristic patterns associated with consumer profiles. We found that financial situation, health status, and weight change are associated with membership in distinct clusters (Figure 2). In our study, dissatisfaction with one’s financial situation, health status, and weight gain were predictors of belonging to the WE and NE groups, while a positive profile of these features translated into membership in the PE group.

Figure 2.

The assessment of one’s financial situation may influence behaviors in response to stressful life situations. Individuals who rate their financial situation worse may be more prone to negative emotions related to financial problems. Food consumption could serve as a form of emotional compensation or coping mechanism for life difficulties. Additionally, lower socioeconomic status could limit access to other stress coping mechanisms, increasing the attractiveness of eating as a way to alleviate negative feelings.

Individuals who rated their financial situation worse may also be more prone to be overweight and face health problems associated with excessive food consumption. This can lead to more serious health problems such as obesity, diabetes, and heart disease. There is a need for targeted interventions to support individuals with low financial self-esteem in managing emotions and coping with stress in a healthier way than through excessive food consumption. Individuals with poorer financial self-esteem may also be more susceptible to compulsive food consumption as a way to cope with negative emotions.

Subjective assessment of one’s health status and weight gain significantly influences dietary behaviors in situations of negative emotions. Individuals who felt that their health had deteriorated during the pandemic more often reached for snacks as a way to cope with stress and anxiety related to illness. This suggests that worsening health may be a risk factor for increased consumption of unhealthy food during periods of emotional stress.

Moreover, individuals who experienced weight gain during the pandemic tended to reach for snacks as a form of emotional compensation. This behavior may be related to lower self-esteem and greater psychological burden associated with weight gain. Weight gain may be a risk factor for increased snack consumption as a coping mechanism for stress.

Understanding these relationships is crucial for developing effective nutritional and mental health strategies, especially during times of health and emotional crises. Further research should focus on identifying the mechanisms underlying these relationships and developing interventions aimed at improving mental health and dietary habits during challenging times, such as pandemics.

Research has shown a significant association between product positioning and visibility in stores, price promotions, and snack consumption (Luick et al., 2023; Piernas et al., 2022; Ravensbergen et al., 2015). While our study did not address this, examining how emotions are influenced at the point of purchase through product availability and presentation could be a valuable direction for future research.

One limitation of our study was its focus on a specific demographic group (adults) and the categorization of snacks limited solely to unhealthy food, characterized by a binary taste designation (sweet/salty). In future research, it would be valuable to include other groups such as children, and adolescents, and also consider a wider variety of types of snacks.