Recent trends in the youth labor market in Colombia: Diagnosis and policy challenges

Andrés Ham; Darío Maldonado; Carlos Santiago Guzmán-Gutiérrez

Open Access

Recent trends in the youth labor market in Colombia: Diagnosis and policy challenges

Andrés Ham

Darío Maldonado

and

Carlos Santiago Guzmán-Gutiérrez

| Jun 30, 2021

IZA Journal of Labor Policy

Volume 11 (2021): Issue 1 (January 2021)

About this article

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Page range: -

Accepted: Sep 16, 2020

DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/izajolp-2021-0007

Keywords
youth, labor market, transition into the labor market, labor policy, Colombia

© 2021 Andrés Ham et al., published by Sciendo

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Labor market indicators for Latin American youth.Source: Authors’ calculations on data from (SEDLAC, 2018).Notes: Youth are defined as people aged between 15 and 24. The dashed lines represent the regional average. ARG=Argentina, BOL=Bolivia, BRA=Brazil, CHL=Chile, COL=Colombia, CRI=Costa Rica, DOM=Dominican Republic, ECU=Ecuador, SLV=El Salvador, GTM=Guatemala, HND=Honduras, MEX=Mexico, NIC=Nicaragua, PAN=Panama, PRY=Paraguay, URY=Uruguay.

Gender gaps in labor market indicators for Latin American youth.Source: Authors’ calculations on data from (SEDLAC, 2018).Notes: Youth are defined as people aged between 15 and 24. ARG=Argentina, BOL=Bolivia, BRA=Brazil, CHL=Chile, COL=Colombia, CRI=Costa Rica, DOM=Dominican Republic, ECU=Ecuador, SLV=El Salvador, GTM=Guatemala, HND=Honduras, MEX=Mexico, NIC=Nicaragua, PAN=Panama, PRY=Paraguay, URY=Uruguay.

Time use trends for youth and adults.Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.

Trends in labor market indicators for youth and adults.Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.

Trends in type of occupation and informality for youth and adults.Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.

Trends in real monthly earnings for youth and adults.Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.Notes: Earning values were deflated to December 2008 prices using the consumer price index published by the Colombian Central Bank.

Ratios in labor market indicators between youth and adults.Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.Notes: The graph shows the average ratio (circle) and its 95% confidence interval. When in range, we also show a dashed line for equality at value 1.

Ratios in youth labor market indicators by gender.Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.Notes: The graph shows the average ratio (circle) and its 95% confidence interval. When in range, we also show a dashed line for equality at value 1. The statistics used to calculate these ratios are shown in Table A4 in Appendix.

Ratios in youth labor market indicators by area of residence.Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.Notes: The graph shows the average ratio (circle) and its 95% confidence interval. When in range, we also show a dashed line for equality at value 1. The statistics used to calculate these ratios are shown in Table A5 in Appendix.

Ratios in youth labor market indicators by education level.Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.Notes: The graph shows the average ratio (circle) and its 95% confidence interval. When in range, we also show a dashed line for equality at value 1. The statistics used to calculate these ratios are shown in Table A7 in Appendix.

Ratios in youth labor market indicators by SES.Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.Notes: The graph shows the average ratio (circle) and its 95% confidence interval. When in range, we also show a dashed line for equality at value 1. The statistics used to calculate these ratios are shown in Table A8 in Appendix.

Ratios in youth labor market indicators by migration status.Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.Notes: The graph shows the average ratio (circle) and its 95% confidence interval. When in range, we also show a dashed line for equality at value 1. The statistics used to calculate these ratios are shown in Table A9 in Appendix.

Ratios in youth labor market indicators by level of experience.Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.Notes: The graph shows the average ratio (circle) and its 95% confidence interval. When in range, we also show a dashed line for equality at value 1. The statistics used to calculate these ratios are shown in Table A10 in Appendix. Given that the GEIH only asks employed and unemployed individuals if they have previous labor market experience, it is impossible to calculate labor force participation by level of experience. In order to obtain that estimate, we require that inactive individuals be asked about their level of experience in the labor market, which is not currently asked.

Seasonality of youth labor market indicators in Colombia.Source: Authors’ elaboration from (LABLAC, 2018) data.Notes: The data for Colombia are drawn from the GEIH from 2008 to 2016. Youth are defined as people aged between 15 and 24.

Trends in economic sector for youth and adults.Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.

Trends in STEM occupation for youth and adults.Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.

Trends in labor market indicators for youth and adults

	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
A. Time use
Youth
Working	0.363	0.371	0.373	0.382	0.382	0.381	0.384	0.393	0.389	0.384
Seeking work	0.057	0.057	0.047	0.045	0.037	0.035	0.038	0.041	0.039	0.038
Studying	0.355	0.358	0.357	0.353	0.342	0.356	0.357	0.356	0.353	0.352
Other	0.225	0.214	0.223	0.219	0.239	0.228	0.221	0.209	0.218	0.226
Adults
Working	0.621	0.626	0.631	0.644	0.634	0.637	0.647	0.659	0.650	0.649
Seeking work	0.034	0.038	0.033	0.028	0.027	0.025	0.024	0.027	0.026	0.024
Studying	0.004	0.005	0.005	0.005	0.005	0.004	0.005	0.005	0.005	0.006
Other	0.340	0.331	0.331	0.323	0.334	0.333	0.324	0.308	0.319	0.321
B. Labor market indicators
Youth
Labor force participation	0.530	0.552	0.573	0.574	0.587	0.582	0.582	0.581	0.573	0.576
Employment rate	0.426	0.442	0.463	0.472	0.485	0.489	0.491	0.490	0.484	0.483
Unemployment rate	0.196	0.200	0.191	0.178	0.174	0.160	0.156	0.157	0.155	0.161
Adults
Labor force participation	0.753	0.777	0.792	0.795	0.803	0.808	0.805	0.810	0.809	0.809
Employment rate	0.693	0.708	0.727	0.737	0.745	0.753	0.755	0.758	0.755	0.754
Unemployment rate	0.079	0.089	0.082	0.073	0.072	0.068	0.062	0.064	0.067	0.068
C. Employment quality
Youth
Wage earners	0.596	0.590	0.571	0.576	0.579	0.580	0.593	0.600	0.599	0.593
Informality	0.691	0.705	0.720	0.712	0.703	0.677	0.663	0.640	0.633	0.631
Sector: Agriculture	0.181	0.204	0.193	0.181	0.170	0.162	0.163	0.151	0.164	0.168
Sector: Manufacturing	0.219	0.205	0.211	0.227	0.215	0.210	0.204	0.206	0.202	0.197
Sector: Services	0.600	0.590	0.596	0.592	0.615	0.629	0.633	0.643	0.634	0.635
Occupation: STEM	0.037	0.029	0.041	0.040	0.046	0.050	0.054	0.061	0.062	0.057
Adults
Wage earners	0.465	0.456	0.449	0.444	0.446	0.461	0.467	0.474	0.472	0.470
Informality	0.654	0.666	0.671	0.658	0.654	0.631	0.618	0.614	0.603	0.596
Sector: Agriculture	0.173	0.176	0.178	0.170	0.168	0.163	0.161	0.158	0.159	0.165
Sector: Manufacturing	0.202	0.208	0.213	0.214	0.208	0.201	0.201	0.197	0.197	0.195
Sector: Services	0.625	0.616	0.609	0.616	0.624	0.636	0.639	0.644	0.644	0.641

Occupation: STEM	0.039	0.037	0.042	0.047	0.048	0.055	0.054	0.057	0.054	0.057
D. Real monthly earnings
Youth	495,919	493,676	499,359	519,657	521,473	549,504	557,946	556,813	544,201	553,089
Adults	648,638	633,078	653,693	671,388	667,310	690,540	698,319	676,237	681,665	681,402

STEM occupations

Code	Occupation (CIUO-68)
1	Specialists in physical and chemical sciences and related technicians
and 3	Architects, engineers, and related technicians
	Pilots, deck officers, machinists’ mates (aviation and navy)
	Biologists, agronomists, and related technicians
and 7	Physicians, odontologists, veterinarians, and related workers
	Statisticians, mathematicians, system analysts, and related technicians
	Economists
	Accountants
	Jurists

Recent youth labor policies in Colombia

Name	Year	Measures	Ages
Youth in Action (Jóvenes en Acción) —First stage	2005	Cash transfers conditional on program participation. Three months of theoretical training and a three month internship	18–25
First job act (Ley del Primer Empleo) —Law 1429	2010	Exemption from payroll taxes for employers who hire young workers. Tax benefits and simplification of procedures for enterprises.	18–28
10,000 First Jobs (40,000 Primeros Empleos)	2015	Offers a grant to companies that hire young people. The grant covers wages, compulsory social contributions, and a travel allowance for six months. Participating firms must guarantee six additional months to 60% of the beneficiaries they hire.	18–28
Pro-Youth Act (Ley Projoven) — Law 2780 of 2016	2016	Promotes entrepreneurship among young people by providing seed money and tax benefits. Attracts talented young people to work in the public sector through paid internships. Exemption from payroll taxes for companies that hire inexperienced young individuals. Removes the requirement of military service for young males to obtain a formal job.	18–28

Trends in youth labor market indicators by level of experience (individuals ≥18 years)

	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
A. Time use
With experience
Working	0.705	0.687	0.681	0.702	0.690	0.697	0.701	0.716	0.706	0.695
Seeking work	0.113	0.123	0.096	0.090	0.073	0.069	0.077	0.080	0.080	0.075
Studying	0.039	0.043	0.056	0.053	0.059	0.057	0.059	0.057	0.053	0.055
Other	0.143	0.148	0.167	0.155	0.178	0.177	0.163	0.148	0.161	0.175
Without experience
Working	0.709	0.709	0.677	0.671	0.661	0.655	0.672	0.684	0.696	0.670
Seeking work	0.098	0.076	0.064	0.064	0.047	0.047	0.042	0.055	0.046	0.054
Studying	0.067	0.078	0.113	0.116	0.120	0.130	0.123	0.119	0.111	0.110
Other	0.125	0.137	0.145	0.148	0.172	0.168	0.163	0.142	0.147	0.167
B. Labor market indicators
With experience
Labor force participation	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Employment rate	0.788	0.773	0.793	0.810	0.809	0.821	0.821	0.833	0.828	0.824
Unemployment rate	0.212	0.227	0.207	0.190	0.191	0.179	0.179	0.167	0.172	0.176
Without experience
Labor force participation	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Employment rate	0.837	0.853	0.849	0.856	0.872	0.891	0.900	0.880	0.880	0.874
Unemployment rate	0.163	0.147	0.151	0.144	0.128	0.109	0.100	0.120	0.120	0.126
C. Employment quality
With experience
Wage earners	0.671	0.672	0.661	0.657	0.660	0.654	0.677	0.678	0.669	0.658
Informality	0.608	0.628	0.644	0.638	0.625	0.599	0.581	0.562	0.559	0.565
Sector: Agriculture	0.144	0.170	0.155	0.140	0.132	0.125	0.116	0.116	0.133	0.134
Sector: Manufacturing	0.242	0.218	0.235	0.251	0.233	0.233	0.225	0.224	0.215	0.211
Sector: Services	0.615	0.612	0.610	0.609	0.634	0.642	0.659	0.660	0.652	0.656
Occupation: STEM	0.045	0.033	0.049	0.047	0.054	0.057	0.062	0.072	0.071	0.065
Without experience
Wage earners	0.511	0.511	0.455	0.456	0.455	0.471	0.458	0.477	0.485	0.491
Informality	0.745	0.751	0.776	0.779	0.775	0.773	0.774	0.744	0.731	0.727
Sector: Agriculture	0.204	0.218	0.204	0.204	0.187	0.193	0.212	0.184	0.193	0.196
Sector: Manufacturing	0.187	0.200	0.179	0.192	0.192	0.173	0.178	0.182	0.177	0.175
Sector: Services	0.609	0.582	0.617	0.603	0.620	0.634	0.610	0.635	0.631	0.629
Occupation: STEM	0.034	0.030	0.038	0.041	0.047	0.052	0.056	0.051	0.058	0.054
D. Real monthly earnings
With experience	552,698	542,829	547,344	571,560	577,223	613,379	625,119	609,815	594,804	597,400
Without experience	455,394	456,405	465,643	465,397	456,607	452,350	457,866	483,739	469,764	475,724

Trends in youth labor market indicators by educational level

	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
A. Time use
Skilled
Working	0.663	0.685	0.655	0.681	0.661	0.665	0.669	0.690	0.669	0.675
Seeking work	0.126	0.109	0.097	0.090	0.064	0.066	0.068	0.076	0.077	0.071
Studying	0.061	0.068	0.077	0.080	0.089	0.091	0.090	0.082	0.074	0.066
Other	0.150	0.138	0.171	0.150	0.186	0.178	0.173	0.152	0.180	0.187
Unskilled
Working	0.372	0.385	0.385	0.402	0.401	0.395	0.399	0.414	0.407	0.404
Seeking work	0.069	0.073	0.057	0.055	0.045	0.038	0.041	0.047	0.043	0.044
Studying	0.351	0.344	0.350	0.337	0.321	0.345	0.344	0.331	0.327	0.326
Other	0.207	0.198	0.208	0.206	0.233	0.222	0.216	0.207	0.223	0.226
B. Labor market indicators
Skilled
Labor force participation	0.903	0.907	0.901	0.912	0.894	0.901	0.893	0.902	0.901	0.911
Employment rate	0.723	0.747	0.733	0.754	0.747	0.758	0.757	0.765	0.756	0.769
Unemployment rate	0.200	0.177	0.186	0.173	0.164	0.159	0.152	0.152	0.160	0.155
Unskilled
Labor force participation	0.578	0.604	0.624	0.627	0.644	0.625	0.624	0.631	0.614	0.624
Employment rate	0.446	0.460	0.485	0.500	0.514	0.512	0.512	0.522	0.509	0.510
Unemployment rate	0.230	0.238	0.223	0.204	0.201	0.181	0.180	0.172	0.170	0.183
C. Employment quality
Skilled
Salaried occupation	0.748	0.729	0.718	0.714	0.710	0.723	0.752	0.752	0.743	0.730
Informality	0.280	0.288	0.334	0.326	0.333	0.320	0.297	0.281	0.282	0.291
Sector: Agriculture	0.017	0.026	0.016	0.022	0.020	0.014	0.009	0.017	0.026	0.031
Sector: Manufacturing	0.174	0.152	0.166	0.180	0.160	0.175	0.175	0.175	0.167	0.170
Sector: Services	0.809	0.823	0.818	0.798	0.821	0.811	0.816	0.808	0.808	0.800
Occupation: STEM	0.207	0.160	0.183	0.180	0.187	0.174	0.195	0.199	0.234	0.208
Unskilled
Salaried occupation	0.638	0.665	0.628	0.621	0.626	0.606	0.629	0.637	0.633	0.621
Informality	0.635	0.627	0.662	0.667	0.663	0.673	0.665	0.637	0.631	0.641
Sector: Agriculture	0.073	0.080	0.079	0.086	0.078	0.080	0.090	0.092	0.101	0.108
Sector: Manufacturing	0.234	0.219	0.220	0.229	0.236	0.219	0.221	0.211	0.213	0.205
Sector: Services	0.694	0.701	0.701	0.685	0.686	0.701	0.690	0.696	0.686	0.687
Occupation: STEM	0.016	0.017	0.032	0.026	0.029	0.031	0.028	0.035	0.029	0.025
D. Real monthly earnings
Skilled	901,194	900,018	892,860	888,346	866,497	884,256	890,851	857,286	861,026	821,858
Unskilled	485,135	488,930	495,174	499,146	499,384	511,002	509,471	515,089	501,342	512,423

Trends in youth labor market indicators by area of residence

	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
A. Time use
Urban
Working	0.367	0.369	0.370	0.382	0.388	0.389	0.396	0.402	0.394	0.390
Seeking work	0.060	0.061	0.052	0.050	0.040	0.038	0.040	0.044	0.042	0.044
Studying	0.374	0.378	0.381	0.377	0.361	0.372	0.372	0.372	0.367	0.365
Other	0.199	0.191	0.198	0.191	0.211	0.201	0.192	0.182	0.197	0.201
Rural
Working	0.351	0.376	0.386	0.382	0.361	0.356	0.343	0.361	0.371	0.358
Seeking work	0.045	0.045	0.033	0.029	0.028	0.024	0.028	0.033	0.029	0.020
Studying	0.292	0.289	0.275	0.277	0.277	0.298	0.305	0.299	0.304	0.304
Other	0.313	0.290	0.306	0.313	0.334	0.322	0.323	0.307	0.296	0.317
B. Labor market indicators
Urban
Labor force participation	0.541	0.559	0.577	0.578	0.596	0.590	0.593	0.589	0.581	0.584
Employment rate	0.431	0.438	0.457	0.468	0.485	0.489	0.493	0.494	0.484	0.479
Unemployment rate	0.204	0.216	0.208	0.191	0.187	0.171	0.168	0.162	0.166	0.179
Rural
Labor force participation	0.492	0.531	0.559	0.563	0.556	0.553	0.541	0.550	0.544	0.547
Employment rate	0.408	0.455	0.485	0.487	0.486	0.487	0.482	0.475	0.483	0.497
Unemployment rate	0.170	0.144	0.132	0.135	0.125	0.120	0.109	0.136	0.112	0.092
C. Employment quality
Urban
Salaried occupation	0.625	0.633	0.618	0.621	0.627	0.621	0.638	0.650	0.654	0.643
Informality	0.633	0.636	0.660	0.648	0.636	0.618	0.599	0.574	0.570	0.568
Sector: Agriculture	0.044	0.050	0.043	0.034	0.035	0.029	0.030	0.032	0.037	0.039
Sector: Manufacturing	0.248	0.229	0.236	0.248	0.237	0.230	0.223	0.226	0.220	0.217
Sector: Services	0.708	0.721	0.721	0.717	0.728	0.741	0.747	0.742	0.743	0.743
Occupation: STEM	0.047	0.038	0.052	0.051	0.058	0.063	0.067	0.074	0.077	0.071
Rural
Salaried occupation	0.495	0.454	0.427	0.434	0.415	0.438	0.431	0.414	0.401	0.419
Informality	0.889	0.924	0.909	0.915	0.933	0.885	0.899	0.890	0.867	0.854
Sector: Agriculture	0.647	0.682	0.651	0.639	0.624	0.617	0.636	0.589	0.624	0.610
Sector: Manufacturing	0.122	0.131	0.134	0.161	0.142	0.140	0.138	0.135	0.134	0.128
Sector: Services	0.231	0.186	0.215	0.200	0.234	0.243	0.226	0.276	0.242	0.262
Occupation: STEM	0.003	0.001	0.005	0.005	0.007	0.007	0.007	0.009	0.008	0.009
D. Real monthly earnings
Urban	539,281	538,921	546,006	564,167	569,131	597,107	607,002	602,954	585,825	594,071
Rural	333,284	331,863	335,225	362,220	339,247	367,432	357,491	365,652	375,807	394,925

Trends in youth labor market indicators by level of experience

	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
A. Time use
With experience
Working	0.695	0.675	0.668	0.689	0.673	0.684	0.685	0.701	0.696	0.689
Seeking work	0.112	0.122	0.096	0.088	0.072	0.067	0.076	0.080	0.079	0.075
Studying	0.047	0.053	0.066	0.066	0.076	0.068	0.075	0.070	0.063	0.062
Other	0.145	0.151	0.170	0.156	0.179	0.180	0.165	0.149	0.162	0.175
Without experience
Working	0.659	0.655	0.614	0.607	0.588	0.575	0.591	0.610	0.630	0.598
Seeking work	0.093	0.070	0.054	0.057	0.043	0.039	0.035	0.048	0.040	0.045
Studying	0.122	0.145	0.194	0.191	0.207	0.225	0.219	0.201	0.195	0.192
Other	0.126	0.131	0.138	0.145	0.161	0.161	0.155	0.141	0.135	0.165
B. Labor market indicators
With experience
Labor force participation	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Employment rate	0.784	0.768	0.786	0.805	0.804	0.817	0.818	0.827	0.825	0.822
Unemployment rate	0.216	0.232	0.214	0.195	0.196	0.183	0.182	0.173	0.175	0.178
Without experience
Labor force participation	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Employment rate	0.834	0.856	0.856	0.859	0.878	0.895	0.909	0.883	0.894	0.883
Unemployment rate	0.166	0.144	0.144	0.141	0.122	0.105	0.091	0.117	0.106	0.117
C. Employment quality
With experience
Salaried occupation	0.669	0.669	0.654	0.655	0.655	0.650	0.669	0.670	0.665	0.656
Informality	0.624	0.644	0.659	0.654	0.645	0.615	0.598	0.578	0.572	0.575
Sector: Agriculture	0.152	0.180	0.161	0.151	0.144	0.132	0.126	0.122	0.140	0.140
Sector: Manufacturing	0.239	0.216	0.236	0.249	0.230	0.231	0.221	0.222	0.215	0.209
Sector: Services	0.609	0.604	0.603	0.600	0.626	0.637	0.653	0.656	0.645	0.651
Occupation: STEM	0.043	0.032	0.047	0.045	0.051	0.055	0.060	0.069	0.069	0.063
Without experience
Salaried occupation	0.488	0.470	0.421	0.418	0.416	0.423	0.418	0.439	0.446	0.439
Informality	0.789	0.799	0.832	0.830	0.829	0.820	0.819	0.790	0.781	0.774
Sector: Agriculture	0.223	0.241	0.250	0.241	0.227	0.230	0.247	0.217	0.220	0.235
Sector: Manufacturing	0.189	0.189	0.166	0.184	0.182	0.161	0.165	0.169	0.170	0.167
Sector: Services	0.587	0.569	0.583	0.575	0.591	0.609	0.588	0.613	0.610	0.598
Occupation: STEM	0.028	0.025	0.029	0.031	0.037	0.040	0.042	0.041	0.047	0.043
D. Real monthly earnings
With experience	542,193	533,520	536,718	559,216	560,676	599,597	610,078	598,259	585,625	591,337
Without experience	421,243	422,818	418,807	423,611	418,927	412,597	411,887	445,508	432,209	442,297

Differences in youth labor market indicators by characteristics, 2017

	Labor force participation (share)	Employment rate (share)	Unemployment rate	Salaried occupation (share)	Informality (share)	Monthly earnings (Colombian pesos or COP)
A. Gender
Male	0.658	0.578	0.122	0.582	0.643	554,214
Female	0.505	0.398	0.212	0.616	0.604	528,264
Pr (Male=Female)	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.468	0.411	0.000
Observations	199,389	199,389	108,551	88,787	87,874	75,708
B. Region
Urban	0.589	0.484	0.178	0.649	0.562	588,332
Rural	0.558	0.505	0.093	0.413	0.860	375,005
Pr (Urban=Rural)	0.001	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Observations	199,389	199,389	108,551	88,787	87,874	75,708
C. Education level
Unskilled	0.901	0.754	0.163	0.737	0.285	832,519
Skilled	0.619	0.508	0.180	0.630	0.628	504,991
Pr (Unskilled=Skilled)	0.000	0.000	0.028	0.000	0.000	0.000
Observations	133,827	133,827	84,562	68,232	68,135	59,081
D. Socioeconomic status
Medium/High	0.582	0.488	0.161	0.726	0.426	759,876
Low	0.582	0.486	0.164	0.573	0.673	487,573
Pr (Medium/High=Low)	0.000	0.000	0.246	0.000	0.000	0.000
Observations	194,668	194,668	105,780	86,311	85,491	73,744
E. Migration status
Non-migrants	0.569	0.478	0.160	0.580	0.632	529,685
Migrants	0.641	0.539	0.160	0.665	0.610	600,796
Pr (Migrant/Native)	0.079	0.069	0.905	0.000	0.939	0.000
Observations	199,252	199,252	108,480	88,735	87,822	75,669
F. Experience
With experience	-	0.819	0.181	0.663	0.567	582,553
Without experience	-	0.891	0.109	0.440	0.772	437,439
Pr (With=Without)		0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Observations		108,551	108,551	88,787	87,874	75,708
G. Age groups
14–17	0.172	0.150	0.127	0.332	0.997	229,524
18–-21	0.607	0.471	0.224	0.594	0.749	430,128
22–25	0.786	0.664	0.154	0.637	0.567	572,049
26–28	0.848	0.749	0.116	0.622	0.508	664,308
Pr (All equal)	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Observations	199,389	199,389	108,551	88,787	87,874	75,708

Trends in youth labor market indicators by SES (individuals ≥18 years)

	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
A. Time use
Medium/High
Working	0.515	0.512	0.508	0.527	0.522	0.517	0.524	0.534	0.501	0.518
Seeking work	0.066	0.065	0.049	0.052	0.044	0.040	0.038	0.046	0.045	0.054
Studying	0.252	0.272	0.283	0.277	0.270	0.292	0.294	0.285	0.301	0.288
Other	0.167	0.151	0.160	0.144	0.165	0.151	0.144	0.135	0.153	0.140
Low
Working	0.487	0.501	0.495	0.507	0.505	0.509	0.510	0.525	0.519	0.508
Seeking work	0.081	0.084	0.068	0.066	0.053	0.051	0.058	0.060	0.056	0.052
Studying	0.118	0.128	0.136	0.134	0.127	0.135	0.138	0.142	0.139	0.142
Other	0.314	0.287	0.300	0.293	0.315	0.305	0.294	0.274	0.286	0.299
B. Labor market indicators
Medium/High
Labor force participation	0.705	0.714	0.734	0.739	0.754	0.738	0.736	0.724	0.708	0.720
Employment rate	0.574	0.581	0.598	0.618	0.624	0.621	0.625	0.625	0.602	0.607
Unemployment rate	0.186	0.187	0.186	0.164	0.172	0.159	0.151	0.136	0.149	0.157
Low
Labor force participation	0.696	0.728	0.738	0.737	0.743	0.742	0.739	0.747	0.735	0.742
Employment rate	0.559	0.579	0.593	0.599	0.610	0.618	0.616	0.626	0.614	0.615
Unemployment rate	0.196	0.205	0.197	0.187	0.179	0.167	0.167	0.163	0.165	0.171
C. Employment quality
Medium/High
Wage earners	0.701	0.718	0.696	0.678	0.706	0.693	0.718	0.713	0.729	0.725
Informality	0.476	0.469	0.490	0.512	0.493	0.466	0.450	0.419	0.429	0.413
Sector: Agriculture	0.036	0.038	0.025	0.019	0.028	0.019	0.035	0.016	0.021	0.010
Sector: Manufacturing	0.212	0.187	0.206	0.194	0.197	0.181	0.174	0.180	0.179	0.172
Sector: Services	0.752	0.775	0.768	0.787	0.775	0.801	0.790	0.804	0.800	0.819
Occupation: STEM	0.084	0.084	0.100	0.111	0.108	0.126	0.118	0.136	0.137	0.133
Low
Wage earners	0.581	0.596	0.585	0.595	0.585	0.593	0.599	0.612	0.605	0.599
Informality	0.726	0.716	0.729	0.709	0.706	0.690	0.676	0.653	0.636	0.653
Sector: Agriculture	0.197	0.202	0.182	0.171	0.158	0.160	0.150	0.151	0.164	0.166
Sector: Manufacturing	0.236	0.221	0.226	0.248	0.232	0.230	0.227	0.227	0.215	0.215
Sector: Services	0.568	0.577	0.592	0.581	0.610	0.610	0.623	0.623	0.621	0.618
Occupation: STEM	0.021	0.018	0.030	0.024	0.036	0.034	0.043	0.047	0.051	0.042
D. Real monthly earnings
Medium/High	698,510	754,165	777,570	750,044	750,656	814,320	802,351	804,612	767,492	769,925
Low	443,185	450,694	452,873	489,867	490,885	501,767	520,435	517,503	515,560	509,870

Trends in youth labor market indicators by SES

	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
A. Time use
Medium/High
Working	0.387	0.383	0.392	0.401	0.402	0.404	0.412	0.411	0.389	0.408
Seeking work	0.050	0.048	0.037	0.040	0.035	0.031	0.030	0.036	0.035	0.042
Studying	0.419	0.441	0.437	0.437	0.423	0.434	0.434	0.434	0.445	0.430
Other	0.144	0.127	0.134	0.123	0.141	0.132	0.124	0.119	0.131	0.120
Low
Working	0.355	0.368	0.366	0.375	0.376	0.374	0.375	0.389	0.390	0.377
Seeking work	0.059	0.061	0.050	0.048	0.039	0.036	0.042	0.044	0.042	0.038
Studying	0.330	0.337	0.338	0.333	0.326	0.338	0.340	0.339	0.332	0.333
Other	0.256	0.234	0.246	0.244	0.259	0.252	0.243	0.228	0.236	0.252
B. Labor market indicators
Medium/High
Labor force participation	0.546	0.550	0.582	0.584	0.599	0.593	0.597	0.575	0.565	0.577
Employment rate	0.445	0.447	0.472	0.487	0.496	0.498	0.508	0.494	0.481	0.486
Unemployment rate	0.185	0.187	0.189	0.166	0.173	0.160	0.150	0.140	0.150	0.159
Low
Labor force participation	0.527	0.557	0.575	0.572	0.585	0.577	0.576	0.582	0.573	0.574
Employment rate	0.423	0.442	0.462	0.465	0.480	0.482	0.482	0.487	0.482	0.478
Unemployment rate	0.199	0.206	0.196	0.187	0.179	0.165	0.163	0.164	0.159	0.168
C. Employment quality
Medium/High
Salaried occupation	0.686	0.704	0.684	0.665	0.696	0.683	0.703	0.702	0.716	0.719
Informality	0.509	0.496	0.521	0.541	0.520	0.489	0.472	0.443	0.449	0.426
Sector: Agriculture	0.038	0.039	0.027	0.022	0.027	0.019	0.038	0.018	0.021	0.010
Sector: Manufacturing	0.214	0.188	0.202	0.194	0.195	0.183	0.171	0.178	0.175	0.171
Sector: Services	0.748	0.773	0.770	0.785	0.777	0.798	0.792	0.804	0.804	0.819
Occupation: STEM	0.079	0.081	0.094	0.105	0.103	0.121	0.112	0.130	0.132	0.130
Low
Salaried occupation	0.565	0.571	0.555	0.571	0.558	0.567	0.571	0.587	0.584	0.574
Informality	0.756	0.748	0.764	0.743	0.742	0.721	0.709	0.682	0.665	0.679
Sector: Agriculture	0.213	0.219	0.205	0.194	0.181	0.177	0.174	0.166	0.177	0.185
Sector: Manufacturing	0.230	0.212	0.217	0.238	0.223	0.219	0.216	0.219	0.211	0.210
Sector: Services	0.557	0.569	0.578	0.567	0.595	0.605	0.610	0.614	0.612	0.605
Occupation: STEM	0.019	0.016	0.026	0.022	0.032	0.031	0.039	0.043	0.046	0.038
D. Real monthly earnings
Medium/High	675,895	736,662	754,662	731,048	730,208	793,309	785,198	783,915	752,541	760,710
Low	423,830	433,017	431,666	467,717	467,387	479,347	493,527	498,883	497,061	495,066

Trends in youth labor market indicators by educational level (individuals ≥ 18 years)

	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
A. Time use
Skilled
Working	0.664	0.686	0.655	0.683	0.661	0.668	0.673	0.693	0.671	0.676
Seeking work	0.126	0.109	0.097	0.090	0.064	0.066	0.069	0.076	0.076	0.071
Studying	0.060	0.066	0.077	0.077	0.088	0.088	0.085	0.079	0.073	0.065
Other	0.150	0.139	0.170	0.150	0.187	0.178	0.174	0.152	0.180	0.188
Unskilled
Working	0.438	0.446	0.444	0.461	0.460	0.454	0.453	0.468	0.458	0.456
Seeking work	0.080	0.084	0.065	0.063	0.050	0.044	0.046	0.052	0.048	0.050
Studying	0.258	0.257	0.265	0.254	0.239	0.263	0.267	0.256	0.253	0.253
Other	0.224	0.213	0.226	0.222	0.252	0.239	0.234	0.223	0.241	0.242
B. Labor market indicators
Skilled
Labor force participation	0.904	0.909	0.901	0.913	0.894	0.902	0.895	0.905	0.902	0.912
Employment rate	0.724	0.749	0.734	0.757	0.747	0.759	0.760	0.768	0.758	0.770
Unemployment rate	0.200	0.177	0.186	0.171	0.164	0.159	0.151	0.151	0.159	0.156
Unskilled
Labor force participation	0.661	0.685	0.701	0.702	0.717	0.699	0.695	0.694	0.680	0.692
Employment rate	0.511	0.523	0.548	0.559	0.573	0.573	0.571	0.576	0.562	0.566
Unemployment rate	0.227	0.237	0.219	0.203	0.200	0.180	0.179	0.171	0.172	0.183
C. Employment quality
Skilled
Wage earners	0.749	0.729	0.717	0.715	0.711	0.724	0.753	0.752	0.743	0.730
Informality	0.279	0.287	0.332	0.324	0.331	0.318	0.295	0.280	0.281	0.290
Sector: Agriculture	0.017	0.026	0.017	0.022	0.020	0.013	0.009	0.017	0.025	0.031
Sector: Manufacturing	0.174	0.152	0.166	0.181	0.160	0.175	0.175	0.175	0.167	0.169
Sector: Services	0.809	0.822	0.817	0.797	0.820	0.811	0.816	0.808	0.808	0.800
Occupation: STEM	0.207	0.160	0.183	0.180	0.188	0.175	0.195	0.199	0.234	0.208
Unskilled
Wage earners	0.648	0.672	0.639	0.630	0.636	0.618	0.635	0.646	0.641	0.629
Informality	0.617	0.610	0.646	0.650	0.648	0.657	0.653	0.620	0.617	0.630
Sector: Agriculture	0.070	0.077	0.075	0.083	0.075	0.076	0.088	0.091	0.097	0.103
Sector: Manufacturing	0.234	0.221	0.225	0.234	0.239	0.221	0.222	0.214	0.214	0.207
Sector: Services	0.695	0.701	0.701	0.683	0.686	0.703	0.690	0.695	0.689	0.689
Occupation: STEM	0.017	0.017	0.033	0.027	0.030	0.033	0.029	0.036	0.029	0.026
D. Real monthly earnings
Skilled	901,546	900,207	894,645	889,313	869,862	886,454	892,135	858,124	861,382	822,645
Unskilled	494,144	497,160	505,287	509,011	508,848	519,201	517,179	521,882	507,599	517,198

Youth labor market indicators by geographic regions, 2017

	Bogotá	Eastern	Central	Pacific	Caribbean
A. Time use
Youth
Working	0.456	0.371	0.390	0.374	0.338
Seeking work	0.062	0.039	0.033	0.029	0.034
Studying	0.332	0.373	0.332	0.359	0.368
Other	0.151	0.217	0.245	0.238	0.260
Adults
Working	0.711	0.633	0.624	0.645	0.645
Seeking work	0.037	0.027	0.024	0.016	0.019
Studying	0.006	0.007	0.006	0.006	0.003
Other	0.246	0.333	0.347	0.333	0.333
B. Labor market indicators
Youth
Labor force	0.648	0.569	0.581	0.579	0.517
participation
Employment rate	0.533	0.489	0.483	0.479	0.443
Unemployment rate	0.178	0.141	0.168	0.172	0.144
Adults
Labor force participation	0.852	0.819	0.775	0.819	0.797
Employment rate	0.793	0.762	0.717	0.763	0.752
Unemployment rate	0.070	0.070	0.075	0.068	0.056
C. Employment quality
Youth
Wage earners	0.783	0.573	0.660	0.509	0.425
Informality	0.411	0.669	0.599	0.706	0.778
Sector: Agriculture	0.006	0.226	0.190	0.230	0.187
Sector: Manufacturing	0.212	0.209	0.195	0.197	0.176
Sector: Services	0.783	0.565	0.615	0.573	0.638
Occupation: STEM	0.102	0.044	0.056	0.048	0.037
Adults
Wage earners	0.602	0.428	0.533	0.407	0.364
Informality	0.419	0.644	0.552	0.661	0.715
Sector: Agriculture	0.006	0.214	0.197	0.229	0.172
Sector: Manufacturing	0.217	0.187	0.194	0.194	0.182
Sector: Services	0.777	0.599	0.609	0.577	0.646
Occupation: STEM	0.092	0.047	0.054	0.048	0.044
D. Real monthly earnings
Youth	677,945	542,382	576,063	494,380	451,173
Adults	843,413	666,472	697,949	615,475	579,759

Trends in youth labor market indicators by gender

	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
A. Time use
Male
Working	0.472	0.484	0.488	0.500	0.495	0.495	0.492	0.497	0.497	0.493
Seeking work	0.068	0.070	0.061	0.059	0.052	0.045	0.049	0.049	0.049	0.049
Studying	0.367	0.368	0.363	0.358	0.350	0.359	0.364	0.363	0.361	0.356
Other	0.092	0.078	0.088	0.084	0.103	0.101	0.095	0.091	0.093	0.102
Female
Working	0.254	0.256	0.258	0.261	0.268	0.267	0.276	0.288	0.280	0.272
Seeking work	0.045	0.044	0.034	0.032	0.023	0.024	0.026	0.034	0.029	0.028
Studying	0.342	0.347	0.350	0.349	0.335	0.352	0.351	0.349	0.346	0.348
Other	0.359	0.352	0.358	0.358	0.375	0.357	0.347	0.329	0.344	0.352
B. Labor market indicators
Male
Labor force participation	0.621	0.642	0.666	0.665	0.679	0.667	0.664	0.658	0.656	0.654
Employment rate	0.524	0.544	0.569	0.577	0.588	0.586	0.582	0.580	0.578	0.575
Unemployment rate	0.155	0.153	0.145	0.132	0.135	0.122	0.123	0.118	0.119	0.121
Female
Labor force participation	0.438	0.461	0.479	0.481	0.494	0.495	0.498	0.503	0.489	0.496
Employment rate	0.326	0.338	0.357	0.364	0.382	0.390	0.398	0.398	0.389	0.389
Unemployment rate	0.255	0.267	0.255	0.243	0.228	0.213	0.201	0.209	0.205	0.216
C. Employment quality
Male
Salaried occupation	0.578	0.575	0.566	0.574	0.578	0.582	0.591	0.588	0.587	0.589
Informality	0.711	0.732	0.732	0.727	0.723	0.688	0.678	0.657	0.651	0.642
Sector: Agriculture	0.249	0.283	0.262	0.245	0.229	0.220	0.218	0.202	0.223	0.222
Sector: Manufacturing	0.245	0.225	0.242	0.260	0.251	0.248	0.239	0.254	0.245	0.239
Sector: Services	0.506	0.492	0.496	0.495	0.520	0.533	0.543	0.544	0.532	0.539
Occupation: STEM	0.035	0.028	0.044	0.043	0.051	0.052	0.054	0.066	0.069	0.062
Female
Salaried occupation	0.625	0.615	0.580	0.580	0.580	0.577	0.595	0.619	0.618	0.598
Informality	0.658	0.661	0.702	0.687	0.673	0.660	0.640	0.616	0.606	0.615
Sector: Agriculture	0.060	0.063	0.071	0.068	0.071	0.067	0.075	0.069	0.071	0.081
Sector: Manufacturing	0.173	0.170	0.158	0.170	0.156	0.148	0.150	0.131	0.133	0.131
Sector: Services	0.767	0.768	0.771	0.762	0.774	0.785	0.775	0.799	0.795	0.788
Occupation: STEM	0.040	0.030	0.035	0.036	0.040	0.047	0.055	0.053	0.053	0.050
D. Real monthly earnings
Male	500,932	501,119	510,920	535,673	532,080	564,317	562,065	569,403	555,072	568,149
Female	487,625	481,327	480,364	493,004	504,352	526,027	551,717	537,741	527,592	529,785

Trends in youth labor market indicators by region (individuals ≥18 years)

	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
A. Time use
Urban
Working	0.500	0.505	0.500	0.516	0.517	0.517	0.525	0.535	0.517	0.511
Seeking work	0.081	0.083	0.070	0.067	0.053	0.051	0.054	0.058	0.056	0.058
Studying	0.185	0.184	0.194	0.191	0.180	0.194	0.195	0.195	0.195	0.196
Other	0.234	0.228	0.236	0.226	0.251	0.238	0.226	0.212	0.232	0.236
Rural
Working	0.474	0.492	0.495	0.495	0.473	0.484	0.464	0.490	0.502	0.505
Seeking work	0.059	0.061	0.042	0.041	0.037	0.034	0.040	0.043	0.039	0.027
Studying	0.079	0.078	0.084	0.088	0.072	0.084	0.093	0.079	0.080	0.084
Other	0.388	0.369	0.379	0.376	0.418	0.398	0.403	0.388	0.379	0.384
B. Labor market indicators
Urban
Labor force participation	0.711	0.735	0.747	0.747	0.757	0.752	0.752	0.751	0.738	0.742
Employment rate	0.568	0.577	0.593	0.606	0.617	0.624	0.625	0.632	0.614	0.608
Unemployment rate	0.201	0.214	0.205	0.188	0.185	0.171	0.169	0.160	0.169	0.181
Rural
Labor force participation	0.637	0.664	0.677	0.689	0.683	0.689	0.670	0.695	0.685	0.712
Employment rate	0.531	0.566	0.586	0.595	0.594	0.603	0.589	0.599	0.605	0.645
Unemployment rate	0.167	0.147	0.135	0.137	0.131	0.125	0.122	0.138	0.117	0.093
C. Employment quality
Urban
Wage earners	0.641	0.652	0.640	0.640	0.645	0.640	0.658	0.671	0.668	0.659
Informality	0.602	0.606	0.627	0.617	0.603	0.588	0.571	0.546	0.545	0.546
Sector: Agriculture	0.041	0.048	0.040	0.030	0.032	0.027	0.029	0.029	0.037	0.036
Sector: Manufacturing	0.246	0.231	0.239	0.251	0.240	0.234	0.227	0.228	0.220	0.219
Sector: Services	0.713	0.720	0.721	0.719	0.728	0.739	0.743	0.743	0.743	0.746
Occupation: STEM	0.051	0.041	0.057	0.056	0.063	0.068	0.073	0.080	0.082	0.075
Rural
Wage earners	0.504	0.484	0.454	0.459	0.447	0.477	0.466	0.436	0.431	0.454
Informality	0.871	0.907	0.886	0.896	0.914	0.864	0.877	0.874	0.843	0.834
Sector: Agriculture	0.627	0.672	0.623	0.609	0.596	0.588	0.602	0.566	0.608	0.586
Sector: Manufacturing	0.132	0.142	0.146	0.176	0.153	0.155	0.154	0.149	0.142	0.137
Sector: Services	0.241	0.186	0.231	0.215	0.250	0.257	0.245	0.285	0.250	0.277
Occupation: STEM	0.004	0.001	0.007	0.006	0.009	0.008	0.009	0.011	0.010	0.010
D. Real monthly earnings
Urban	560,863	557,661	568,754	587,201	592,250	619,372	631,007	623,587	603,425	607,953
Rural	349,239	343,785	352,753	378,546	356,741	391,381	381,944	378,846	394,458	409,257

Trends in youth labor market indicators by migration status

	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
A. Time use
Non-migrants
Working	0.370	0.373	0.383	0.378	0.372
Seeking work	0.036	0.039	0.042	0.039	0.038
Studying	0.375	0.377	0.374	0.373	0.373
Other	0.219	0.212	0.201	0.210	0.217
Migrants
Working	0.440	0.442	0.445	0.441	0.436
Seeking work	0.029	0.031	0.037	0.041	0.042
Studying	0.256	0.260	0.266	0.262	0.255
Other	0.275	0.266	0.252	0.256	0.268
B. Labor market indicators
Non-migrants
Labor force participation	0.572	0.570	0.571	0.563	0.563
Employment rate	0.480	0.481	0.480	0.473	0.471
Unemployment rate	0.162	0.157	0.160	0.159	0.164
Migrants
Labor force participation	0.631	0.637	0.630	0.620	0.632
Employment rate	0.535	0.539	0.540	0.533	0.537
Unemployment rate	0.153	0.154	0.143	0.141	0.151
C. Employment quality
Non-migrants
Wage earners	0.559	0.577	0.588	0.581	0.582
Informality	0.684	0.674	0.648	0.639	0.634
Sector: Agriculture	0.163	0.167	0.149	0.164	0.171
Sector: Manufacturing	0.209	0.209	0.206	0.204	0.193
Sector: Services	0.629	0.624	0.645	0.632	0.635
Occupation: STEM	0.049	0.053	0.062	0.064	0.058
Migrants
Wage earners	0.675	0.663	0.656	0.674	0.640
Informality	0.642	0.615	0.604	0.606	0.618
Sector: Agriculture	0.157	0.140	0.160	0.165	0.152
Sector: Manufacturing	0.214	0.184	0.208	0.192	0.211
Sector: Services	0.629	0.676	0.632	0.644	0.637
Occupation: STEM	0.058	0.059	0.052	0.057	0.055
D. Real monthly labor income
Non-migrants	537,304	538,153	541,503	531,831	542,004
Migrants	603,000	641,155	625,752	595,243	598,913

Trends in labor market indicators for youth and adults (individuals ≥18 years)

	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
A. Time use
Youth
Working	0.494	0.502	0.499	0.511	0.508	0.510	0.513	0.526	0.514	0.509
Seeking work	0.076	0.078	0.064	0.061	0.050	0.047	0.051	0.055	0.052	0.052
Studying	0.161	0.161	0.170	0.168	0.157	0.171	0.174	0.172	0.172	0.174
Other	0.268	0.259	0.267	0.260	0.286	0.271	0.262	0.247	0.261	0.265
Adults
Working	0.621	0.626	0.631	0.644	0.634	0.637	0.647	0.659	0.650	0.649
Seeking work	0.034	0.038	0.033	0.028	0.027	0.025	0.024	0.027	0.026	0.024
Studying	0.004	0.005	0.005	0.005	0.005	0.004	0.005	0.005	0.005	0.006
Other	0.340	0.331	0.331	0.323	0.334	0.333	0.324	0.308	0.319	0.321
B. Labor market indicators
Youth
Labor force participation	0.695	0.719	0.731	0.734	0.742	0.739	0.736	0.740	0.728	0.736
Employment rate	0.559	0.575	0.592	0.604	0.612	0.619	0.618	0.625	0.612	0.616
Unemployment rate	0.194	0.201	0.191	0.178	0.174	0.162	0.160	0.155	0.159	0.164
Adults
Labor force participation	0.753	0.777	0.792	0.795	0.803	0.808	0.805	0.810	0.809	0.809
Employment rate	0.693	0.708	0.727	0.737	0.745	0.753	0.755	0.758	0.755	0.754
Unemployment rate	0.079	0.089	0.082	0.073	0.072	0.068	0.062	0.064	0.067	0.068
C. Employment quality
Youth
Wage earners	0.612	0.615	0.599	0.600	0.605	0.606	0.621	0.626	0.621	0.617
Informality	0.658	0.672	0.684	0.678	0.666	0.645	0.630	0.610	0.603	0.605
Sector: Agriculture	0.166	0.187	0.170	0.158	0.147	0.142	0.140	0.134	0.148	0.149
Sector: Manufacturing	0.222	0.212	0.219	0.234	0.222	0.218	0.213	0.213	0.205	0.202
Sector: Services	0.612	0.602	0.612	0.607	0.631	0.640	0.647	0.653	0.647	0.649
Occupation: STEM	0.041	0.032	0.046	0.045	0.052	0.056	0.061	0.066	0.068	0.062
Adults
Wage earners	0.465	0.456	0.449	0.444	0.446	0.461	0.467	0.474	0.472	0.470
Informality	0.654	0.666	0.671	0.658	0.654	0.631	0.618	0.614	0.603	0.596
Sector: Agriculture	0.173	0.176	0.178	0.170	0.168	0.163	0.161	0.158	0.159	0.165
Sector: Manufacturing	0.202	0.208	0.213	0.214	0.208	0.201	0.201	0.197	0.197	0.195
Sector: Services	0.625	0.616	0.609	0.616	0.624	0.636	0.639	0.644	0.644	0.641
Occupation: STEM	0.039	0.037	0.042	0.047	0.048	0.055	0.054	0.057	0.054	0.057
D. Real monthly earnings
Youth	518,016	513,905	524,184	543,609	546,754	574,451	585,558	578,649	564,534	568,861
Adults	648,638	633,078	653,693	671,388	667,310	690,540	698,319	676,237	681,665	681,402

Trends in youth labor market indicators by migration status (individuals ≥ 18 years)

	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
A. Time use
Non-migrants
Working	0.508	0.510	0.522	0.510	0.507
Seeking work	0.050	0.054	0.057	0.054	0.052
Studying	0.178	0.180	0.179	0.179	0.182
Other	0.265	0.256	0.243	0.258	0.259
Migrants
Working	0.522	0.527	0.545	0.532	0.521
Seeking work	0.035	0.038	0.044	0.048	0.050
Studying	0.141	0.149	0.141	0.144	0.141
Other	0.302	0.285	0.270	0.276	0.288
B. Labor market indicators
Non-migrants
Labor force participation	0.742	0.736	0.740	0.728	0.735
Employment rate	0.620	0.617	0.622	0.608	0.611
Unemployment rate	0.164	0.161	0.160	0.165	0.168
Migrants
Labor force participation	0.727	0.736	0.737	0.730	0.742
Employment rate	0.617	0.622	0.638	0.630	0.632
Unemployment rate	0.151	0.155	0.135	0.137	0.148
C. Employment quality
Non-migrants
Wage earners	0.587	0.608	0.614	0.606	0.609
Informality	0.652	0.640	0.617	0.608	0.606
Sector: Agriculture	0.143	0.143	0.131	0.146	0.150
Sector: Manufacturing	0.218	0.219	0.212	0.207	0.198
Sector: Services	0.640	0.638	0.657	0.646	0.651
Occupation: STEM	0.054	0.060	0.069	0.070	0.063
Migrants
Wage earners	0.690	0.677	0.677	0.684	0.649
Informality	0.612	0.590	0.577	0.582	0.601
Sector: Agriculture	0.142	0.129	0.145	0.157	0.146
Sector: Manufacturing	0.217	0.189	0.217	0.196	0.214
Sector: Services	0.641	0.682	0.639	0.647	0.640
Occupation: STEM	0.063	0.063	0.056	0.060	0.058
D. Real monthly labor income
Non-migrants	563,875	566,980	563,227	553,099	558,292
Migrants	620,364	661,810	647,402	611,072	612,268

Trends in youth labor market indicators by gender (individuals ≥ 18 years)

	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
A. Time use
Male
Working	0.648	0.665	0.655	0.672	0.663	0.667	0.664	0.671	0.666	0.661
Seeking work	0.094	0.098	0.083	0.080	0.070	0.063	0.069	0.066	0.067	0.066
Studying	0.169	0.161	0.170	0.166	0.161	0.169	0.174	0.170	0.171	0.172
Other	0.089	0.077	0.092	0.081	0.106	0.101	0.093	0.093	0.096	0.100
Female
Working	0.346	0.347	0.349	0.353	0.360	0.358	0.367	0.385	0.368	0.362
Seeking work	0.060	0.060	0.046	0.043	0.031	0.033	0.034	0.044	0.039	0.038
Studying	0.154	0.161	0.169	0.170	0.153	0.172	0.175	0.173	0.173	0.175
Other	0.440	0.432	0.436	0.434	0.457	0.437	0.424	0.397	0.420	0.425
B. Labor market indicators
Male
Labor force participation	0.817	0.843	0.850	0.852	0.860	0.849	0.847	0.845	0.839	0.838
Employment rate	0.692	0.714	0.726	0.741	0.742	0.744	0.741	0.747	0.737	0.737
Unemployment rate	0.153	0.152	0.146	0.130	0.137	0.123	0.124	0.116	0.121	0.121
Female
Labor force participation	0.577	0.600	0.617	0.618	0.629	0.632	0.629	0.638	0.621	0.637
Employment rate	0.432	0.441	0.462	0.469	0.488	0.498	0.499	0.506	0.491	0.497
Unemployment rate	0.251	0.266	0.251	0.242	0.223	0.213	0.206	0.206	0.209	0.220
C. Employment quality
Male
Wage earners	0.595	0.602	0.596	0.599	0.607	0.610	0.621	0.615	0.610	0.614
Informality	0.675	0.695	0.690	0.690	0.679	0.651	0.644	0.624	0.618	0.612
Sector: Agriculture	0.230	0.261	0.233	0.216	0.200	0.195	0.192	0.181	0.203	0.201
Sector: Manufacturing	0.252	0.235	0.254	0.274	0.264	0.262	0.254	0.264	0.253	0.247
Sector: Services	0.518	0.503	0.513	0.510	0.536	0.543	0.554	0.555	0.543	0.552
Occupation: STEM	0.040	0.032	0.051	0.049	0.058	0.059	0.061	0.073	0.076	0.068
Female
Wage earners	0.639	0.636	0.604	0.601	0.602	0.601	0.622	0.641	0.638	0.620
Informality	0.633	0.635	0.675	0.659	0.647	0.635	0.610	0.589	0.582	0.596
Sector: Agriculture	0.059	0.060	0.064	0.062	0.064	0.062	0.061	0.062	0.065	0.071
Sector: Manufacturing	0.171	0.172	0.160	0.169	0.157	0.149	0.151	0.134	0.132	0.132
Sector: Services	0.770	0.769	0.775	0.769	0.779	0.790	0.788	0.804	0.803	0.797
Occupation: STEM	0.043	0.033	0.038	0.039	0.043	0.051	0.061	0.057	0.057	0.053
D. Real monthly earnings
Male	529,460	525,541	541,728	564,638	565,404	595,007	592,135	598,040	579,678	589,262
Female	499,940	495,359	496,826	510,062	518,452	543,093	575,902	550,245	542,167	538,562

Classification of economic sectors

	Section	Description	CIIU Code
Primary sector	A	Agriculture, livestock, forestry	01, 02
Primary sector	B	Fishery	5
Secondary sector (Industry and manufacturing)	C	Mining and quarrying	10 a 14
	D	Manufacturing industries	15 a 37
	E	Electricity, gas, and water supply	40 y 41
	F	Construction	45
Tertiary sector (Services)	G	Wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles, motorcycles, personal belongings, and household goods	50 a 52
	H	Hotels and restaurants	55
	I	Transport, storage, and communications	60 a 64
	J	Financial intermediation	65 a 67
	K	Real estate, business, and rental activities	70 a 74
	L	Public administration and defense, compulsory social security	75
	M	Education	80
	N	Social services and health	85
	O	Other activities related to community, social, and personal services	90 a 93

eISSN:: 2193-9004
Language:: English

Publication timeframe:: Volume Open
Journal Subjects:: Business and Economics, Political Economics, Microeconomics, Macroecomics, Economic Policy, Mathematics and Statistics for Economists, Econometrics

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Recent trends in the youth labor market in Colombia: Diagnosis and policy challenges

Published Online: Jun 30, 2021

Page range: -

Accepted: Sep 16, 2020

DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/izajolp-2021-0007

Keywordsyouth, labor market, transition into the labor market, labor policy, Colombia

© 2021 Andrés Ham et al., published by Sciendo

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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Figure A1

Figure A2

Figure A3

Trends in labor market indicators for youth and adults

STEM occupations

Recent youth labor policies in Colombia

Trends in youth labor market indicators by level of experience (individuals ≥18 years)

Trends in youth labor market indicators by educational level

Trends in youth labor market indicators by area of residence

Trends in youth labor market indicators by level of experience

Differences in youth labor market indicators by characteristics, 2017

Trends in youth labor market indicators by SES (individuals ≥18 years)

Trends in youth labor market indicators by SES

Trends in youth labor market indicators by educational level (individuals ≥ 18 years)

Youth labor market indicators by geographic regions, 2017

Trends in youth labor market indicators by gender

Trends in youth labor market indicators by region (individuals ≥18 years)

Trends in youth labor market indicators by migration status

Trends in labor market indicators for youth and adults (individuals ≥18 years)

Trends in youth labor market indicators by migration status (individuals ≥ 18 years)

Trends in youth labor market indicators by gender (individuals ≥ 18 years)

Classification of economic sectors

Keywords
youth, labor market, transition into the labor market, labor policy, Colombia