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Gender gaps in education: The long view1

David K. Evans
David K. Evans
, 
Maryam Akmal
Maryam Akmal
 and 
Pamela Jakiela
Pamela Jakiela
   | Jan 29, 2021
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Published Online: Jan 29, 2021
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Accepted: Sep 29, 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/izajodm-2021-0001
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© 2021 Deborah A. Cobb-Clark et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Figure 1

Change in Average Schooling Years Between 1960 and 2010.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. Female years of schooling is the average educational attainment among adult women aged 15 and over; male years of schooling is the average educational attainment among adult men aged 15 and over. For each country, the arrow connects the average level of educational attainment in 1960 to the average level of attainment in 2010. Countries are assigned to regions based on the World Bank's classifications. The dashed line is the 45 degree line.
Change in Average Schooling Years Between 1960 and 2010.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. Female years of schooling is the average educational attainment among adult women aged 15 and over; male years of schooling is the average educational attainment among adult men aged 15 and over. For each country, the arrow connects the average level of educational attainment in 1960 to the average level of attainment in 2010. Countries are assigned to regions based on the World Bank's classifications. The dashed line is the 45 degree line.

Figure 2

Change in Gender Gaps in Educational Attainment.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. The gender gap is the difference between average educational attainment (years of schooling) among adult women and average educational attainment among adult men. Orange indicates countries where women's educational attainment grew more slowly than men's between 1960 and 2010; light blue indicates countries where women's educational attainment grew faster than men's. Countries are assigned to regions based on the World Bank's classifications.
Change in Gender Gaps in Educational Attainment.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. The gender gap is the difference between average educational attainment (years of schooling) among adult women and average educational attainment among adult men. Orange indicates countries where women's educational attainment grew more slowly than men's between 1960 and 2010; light blue indicates countries where women's educational attainment grew faster than men's. Countries are assigned to regions based on the World Bank's classifications.

Figure 3

Regional Change in Gender Gaps in Average Schooling Years, 1960–2010.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD.
Regional Change in Gender Gaps in Average Schooling Years, 1960–2010.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD.

Figure 4

Change in Gender Gap in Average Schooling Years Given Schooling Levels in 1960.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD.
Change in Gender Gap in Average Schooling Years Given Schooling Levels in 1960.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD.

Figure 5

The Number of High-Education Countries by Year.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. “High education” indicates countries where men have an average of more than eight years of education. “Gender gap” indicates a difference in male vs. female educational attainment (mean years of schooling) that is greater than one year.
The Number of High-Education Countries by Year.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. “High education” indicates countries where men have an average of more than eight years of education. “Gender gap” indicates a difference in male vs. female educational attainment (mean years of schooling) that is greater than one year.

Figure 6

Change in Average Schooling Years between 1960 and 2010 for Younger Cohort.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. Female years of schooling is the average educational attainment among adult women aged 20–24; male years of schooling is the average educational attainment among adult men aged 20–24. For each country, the arrow connects the average level of educational attainment in 1960 to the average level of attainment in 2010.
Change in Average Schooling Years between 1960 and 2010 for Younger Cohort.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. Female years of schooling is the average educational attainment among adult women aged 20–24; male years of schooling is the average educational attainment among adult men aged 20–24. For each country, the arrow connects the average level of educational attainment in 1960 to the average level of attainment in 2010.

Figure 7

Change in Gender Gaps in Educational Attainment for Younger Cohort.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. The gender gap is the difference between average educational attainment (years of schooling) among women aged 20–24 and average educational attainment among young men aged 20–24. Orange indicates countries where women's educational attainment grew more slowly than men's between 1960 and 2010; light blue indicates countries where women's educational attainment grew faster than men's.
Change in Gender Gaps in Educational Attainment for Younger Cohort.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. The gender gap is the difference between average educational attainment (years of schooling) among women aged 20–24 and average educational attainment among young men aged 20–24. Orange indicates countries where women's educational attainment grew more slowly than men's between 1960 and 2010; light blue indicates countries where women's educational attainment grew faster than men's.

Figure 8

Gender Gaps in Education and Labor Force Participation.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. Data on labor force participation comes from the World Development Indicators database. Gender gaps are calculated in the difference in levels between female and male labor force participation and educational attainment. The change is the difference between the gender gap in 2010 and the gender gap in 1990. Positive changes indicate that the gender gap shrunk over time.
Gender Gaps in Education and Labor Force Participation.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. Data on labor force participation comes from the World Development Indicators database. Gender gaps are calculated in the difference in levels between female and male labor force participation and educational attainment. The change is the difference between the gender gap in 2010 and the gender gap in 1990. Positive changes indicate that the gender gap shrunk over time.

Figure A1

Year of Worst Gap Among Countries Where It Got Worse Before It Got Better.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. Countries are classified as experiencing the “worse before better” phenomenon if the year of the worst gap is after 1960 and the gap in 2010 is smaller than the worst gap. Countries where the gap “did not get worse before better” either had their worst gap in 1960 or 2010.
Year of Worst Gap Among Countries Where It Got Worse Before It Got Better.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. Countries are classified as experiencing the “worse before better” phenomenon if the year of the worst gap is after 1960 and the gap in 2010 is smaller than the worst gap. Countries where the gap “did not get worse before better” either had their worst gap in 1960 or 2010.

Figure A2

Countries' Transition to and from the High Education and Big Gender Gap Status.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. “High education” indicates countries where men have an average of more than eight years of education. “Gender gap” indicates a difference in male vs. female educational attainment (mean years of schooling) that is greater than one year.
Countries' Transition to and from the High Education and Big Gender Gap Status.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. “High education” indicates countries where men have an average of more than eight years of education. “Gender gap” indicates a difference in male vs. female educational attainment (mean years of schooling) that is greater than one year.

Figure A3

Schooling Years and Gaps.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. “Large gender gap” indicates a difference in male vs. female educational attainment (mean years of schooling) that is greater than one year.
Schooling Years and Gaps.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD. “Large gender gap” indicates a difference in male vs. female educational attainment (mean years of schooling) that is greater than one year.

Figure A4

Regional Change in Gender Gaps in Average Schooling Years for Younger Cohort, 1960–2010.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD.
Regional Change in Gender Gaps in Average Schooling Years for Younger Cohort, 1960–2010.Notes: Sample includes 126 countries, all those included in the Barro–Lee educational attainment data set that were not founding members of the OECD.

Change in Female Schooling Years.

Region Female schooling Slope
1960 2010 Change
East Asia and Pacific 3.04 8.67 5.63 1.22
Europe and Central Asia 5.07 11.08 6.00 1.18
Latin America and Caribbean 3.37 8.34 4.97 1.07
Middle East and North Africa 1.24 7.63 6.39 1.13
South Asia 1.09 5.08 3.99 0.86
Sub-Saharan Africa 1.05 4.90 3.85 0.95

Barro–Lee Sample Compared to UN Member State Sample.

Barro–Lee Sample UN Sample Difference
GDP per capita (Mean) 20535 18453 2082
GDP per capita (SE) 1764 1432 2250
Number of countries 139 182
Literacy (Mean) 86 85 1
Literacy (SE) 2 1 2
Number of countries 109 143

Top Three Countries for Male Schooling Years by Region.

Region Country Male Schooling Years in 1960 Gap in 1960 Male Schooling Years in 2010 Gap in 2010
East Asia and Pacific South Korea 5.57 −2.62 12.76 −1.30
Hong Kong 6.43 −3.09 11.77 −0.77
Japan 8.16 −1.37 11.69 −0.24
Europe and Central Asia Czech Republic 8.80 −0.81 12.89 −0.18
Slovakia 8.86 −0.82 12.80 −0.03
Hungary 7.66 −0.46 11.89 −0.07
Latin America and Caribbean Belize 7.74 −0.31 11.23 0.11
Trinidad and Tobago 5.84 −0.39 10.64 0.00
Cuba 3.94 0.11 10.32 −0.29
Middle East and North Africa Israel 8.37 −1.45 12.32 0.01
Malta 4.81 −1.04 10.77 −0.60
Jordan 3.50 −2.30 9.94 −0.69
South Asia Sri Lanka 4.70 −1.49 10.32 −0.35
India 1.72 −1.21 7.59 −2.78
Maldives 3.81 −0.78 6.29 −0.42
Sub-Saharan Africa South Africa 4.38 0.03 9.72 −0.08
Botswana 1.43 0.06 9.68 −0.26
Mauritius 4.34 −1.55 9.36 −0.89

Countries Where The Gender Gap Got Worse Before It Got Better.

Country Gap in 1960 Worst Gap Year of Worst Gap Gap in 2010
Brunei Darussalam −2.69 −2.71 1965 −0.26
Honduras −0.31 −0.36 1965 0.03
Kazakhstan −1.22 −1.25 1965 −0.17
Philippines −0.55 −0.57 1965 0.59
Singapore −2.38 −2.38 1965 −0.88
Myanmar −0.75 −0.86 1965 0.50
Qatar −1.18 −1.43 1965 1.46
Trinidad and Tobago −0.39 −0.43 1965 −0.00
Vietnam −1.56 −1.71 1965 −0.68
Guyana −0.55 −0.79 1965 0.96
Barbados −0.36 −0.46 1965 0.51
Bahrain −0.92 −1.36 1970 0.48
Australia −0.59 −1.12 1970 0.12
Jamaica 0.15 0.05 1970 0.46
Fiji −1.00 −1.18 1970 −0.16
Czech Republic −0.81 −1.59 1970 −0.18
Mongolia −0.78 −1.47 1970 0.59
Slovakia −0.82 −1.43 1970 −0.03
Jordan −2.30 −2.66 1970 −0.69
Albania −1.02 −1.20 1970 −0.47
Saudi Arabia −3.00 −3.26 1970 −0.54
Russia −1.02 −1.42 1970 −0.22
Ukraine −1.11 −1.54 1970 −0.04
Indonesia −1.23 −1.53 1970 −0.90
Reunion 0.29 0.12 1970 0.87
Ecuador −0.58 −0.71 1970 −0.04
Poland −0.59 −0.62 1970 −0.04
Chile −0.30 −0.35 1970 −0.26
Mauritius −1.55 −1.99 1970 −0.89
Lithuania −0.91 −0.93 1975 0.02
Libya −1.16 −2.65 1975 1.60
Nicaragua −1.11 −2.54 1975 0.44
Colombia −0.26 −0.35 1975 −0.10
Romania −1.11 −1.89 1975 −0.60
Peru −1.26 −1.47 1975 −0.98
Tajikistan −1.71 −1.96 1975 0.50
Syria −1.37 −2.56 1975 −1.45
Rwanda −0.95 −1.27 1975 −0.24
Moldova −1.03 −1.12 1975 −0.11
Burundi −0.61 −1.23 1975 −0.79
Mexico −0.48 −0.82 1980 −0.29
China −1.38 −1.57 1980 −0.81
Iran −0.81 −1.92 1980 −0.39
South Africa 0.03 −0.55 1980 −0.08
Rep. of Congo −1.41 −2.36 1980 −1.29
New Zealand −0.11 −0.52 1980 0.83
Bangladesh −1.32 −1.94 1980 −0.52
Tanzania −1.83 −2.43 1980 −0.80
Cameroon −1.24 −1.80 1980 −1.00
Estonia −0.11 −0.32 1980 0.51
Dominican Republic 0.03 −0.65 1980 0.59
Kenya −1.39 −2.16 1980 −0.89
Laos −1.62 −2.18 1980 −0.92
Bolivia −1.44 −2.02 1980 −1.15
Mozambique −0.94 −1.27 1980 −1.00
Malta −1.04 −1.22 1980 −0.60
Egypt −0.99 −2.44 1985 −1.47
Zimbabwe −0.84 −1.57 1985 −0.44
Uganda −1.20 −1.86 1985 −0.94
Cambodia −1.34 −2.22 1985 −1.73
Tunisia −1.01 −2.22 1985 −1.20
Papua New Guinea −0.43 −1.64 1985 −1.29
Cuba 0.11 −0.61 1985 −0.29
Algeria −0.55 −2.50 1985 −0.66
Sudan −0.64 −1.40 1985 −1.06
Ghana −1.08 −3.31 1985 −2.03
Iraq −0.60 −2.68 1985 −1.92
Zambia −1.19 −2.28 1985 −0.61
Dem. Rep. of Congo −1.32 −2.60 1985 −2.15
Finland −0.16 −0.92 1990 −0.00
Togo −0.70 −3.24 1990 −3.24
Hungary −0.46 −0.94 1990 −0.07
Nepal −0.21 −2.41 1990 −1.46
Uruguay −0.04 −0.98 1995 0.37
Liberia −0.75 −2.88 2000 −2.40
Morocco −0.30 −1.84 2000 −1.67
Malawi −0.87 −1.64 2000 −0.87
Gambia −0.34 −1.57 2000 −1.29
Benin −0.63 −2.35 2000 −2.15
Niger −0.62 −1.21 2000 −1.10
Latvia −0.45 −0.60 2000 −0.03
Yemen −0.03 −2.33 2005 −1.94
Afghanistan −0.54 −3.62 2005 −3.43
Maldives −0.78 −0.83 2005 −0.42
Sierra Leone −0.40 −1.75 2005 −1.65
Central African Republic −0.49 −2.35 2005 −2.13
Pakistan −1.35 −2.62 2005 −2.48
Haiti −0.49 −2.50 2005 −2.40
Eswatini −0.39 −1.34 2005 0.06
El Salvador −0.40 −0.98 2005 −0.39
Guatemala −0.44 −1.04 2005 −1.00
Mauritania −0.33 −1.97 2005 −1.42
Costa Rica −0.10 −0.15 2005 0.06
Mali −0.20 −0.76 2005 0.11
India −1.21 −3.05 2005 −2.78
Cote d’Ivoire −0.83 −2.08 2005 −1.87

Ratio of Females to Males at Various Education Levels in 2010.

Region Ratio of females to males
No formal education Complete primary Complete secondary
East Asia and Pacific 1.89 0.99 0.93
Europe and Central Asia 2.13 0.99 0.94
Latin America and Caribbean 1.48 0.97 1.02
Middle East and North Africa 1.79 0.91 1.08
South Asia 1.84 0.73 0.88
Sub-Saharan Africa 1.52 0.86 0.77

Ratio of Females to Males at Various Education Levels in 2010 (25–29 Year Olds).

Region Ratio of males to females
No formal Education Complete Primary Complete Secondary
East Asia and Pacific 1.27 1.03 1.03
Europe and Central Asia 0.84 1.00 1.06
Latin America and Caribbean 4.56 0.99 1.10
Middle East and North Africa 1.64 0.97 1.24
South Asia 1.80 0.78 0.93
Sub-Saharan Africa 3.06 0.90 0.79

Regression of Female Schooling and Gender Gap in Schooling on Key Variables.

Female schooling Female–Male gap
Male years of schooling 1.121*** (0.028) 0.121*** (0.028)
Log GDP per capita (PPP-adjusted) 1.985*** (0.155) 0.428*** (0.066)
Poverty index −0.104*** (0.010) −0.016*** (0.005)
Life expectancy at birth 0.298*** (0.024) 0.052*** (0.013)
Infant mortality index −0.126*** (0.010) −0.025*** (0.005)
Corruption index 0.107*** (0.011) 0.019*** (0.005)

Schooling Characteristics in the Year of Widest Gender Gap for Countries Where Gender Gap Got Worse Before It Got Better.

25th Percentile 50th Percentile 75th Percentile
Female schooling (15+) 2.07 3.20 4.93
Male schooling (15+) 4.12 4.93 6.40
Female schooling (20–24) 3.27 4.83 7.09
Male schooling (20–24) 5.59 6.74 8.62
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