About this article
Published Online: Feb 03, 2020
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/izajodm-2020-0001
Keywords
© 2020 Eugenia M. Chernina, published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Figure 1
Figure 2
Top migrant destinations and selected destination characteristics
| Region | % migrants | % migrants | % migrants | Population size, thousands | Average wage, RuR | Unemployment rate,% | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total | 2007 | 2009 | 2011 | 2009 | 2008 | 2008 | |
| Moscow | 60.23 | 57.79 | 60.75 | 63.31 | 10,563 | 30,552 | 0.9 |
| St Petersburg | 6.54 | 6.7 | 6.18 | 6.6 | 4,600 | 22,473 | 2.0 |
| Sverdlovskaya obl. | 5.82 | 6.39 | 5.91 | 4.92 | 4,394 | 17,527 | 4.8 |
| Tyumenskaya obl. | 2.19 | 1.56 | 3.23 | 2.24 | 3,430 | 33,877 | 6.5 |
| Irkutskaya obl. | 1.85 | 1.4 | 1.08 | 3.13 | 2,503 | 17,072 | 8.7 |
| Samarskaya obl. | 1.85 | 2.18 | 1.75 | 1.45 | 3,170 | 14,675 | 4.2 |
| Chelyabinskaya obl. | 1.75 | 1.71 | 1.34 | 2.13 | 3,509 | 14,829 | 4.4 |
| Novosibirskaya obl. | 1.23 | 1.32 | 1.48 | 0.89 | 2,650 | 15,714 | 7.3 |
| Krasnodarsky kray | 1.16 | 1.01 | 0.4 | 2.01 | 5,214 | 13,163 | 4.8 |
| Volgogradskaya obl. | 0.92 | 0.86 | 1.08 | 0.89 | 2,590 | 12,002 | 8.1 |
Conditional logistic regression of Tajik migrants' choice between Russian regions: interactions with migration experience (2009 and 2011)
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unemployment rate, % | 1.29** (0.16) | 1.27** (0.13) | 1.28** (0.13) | 1.26** (0.13) | 1.19* (0.12) | 1.27** (0.14) | 1.27** (0.14) | 1.27** (0.13) | 1.27** (0.14) | 1.28** (0.14) |
| Change in unemployment rate (in pp.) | 0.88 (0.11) | |||||||||
| Log of average wage (in 1,000 RuR) | 6.02* (6.07) | 4.88* (4.51) | 5.62* (5.17) | 7.82** (7.78) | 5.59* (5.15) | 5.69* (5.28) | 5.61* (5.21) | 5.59* (5.19) | ||
| Change in average wage (in%) | 1.02 (0.04) | |||||||||
| Log of construction sector output (1,000 RuR per 1 citizen) | 2.29** (0.85) | 1.58 (0.57) | ||||||||
| Change in construction sector output (in%) | 2.68 (1.70) | |||||||||
| Log of population size (in 1,000 people) | 2.98*** (0.71) | 2.96*** (0.69) | 3.30*** (0.88) | 3.33*** (0.89) | 2.92*** (0.69) | 2.96*** (0.70) | 3.65*** (1.00) | 2.93*** (0.70) | 2.95*** (0.70) | 2.97*** (0.71) |
| Population density (in 1,000 people per km2) | 2.57*** (0.31) | 2.67*** (0.32) | 2.88*** (0.31) | 3.00*** (0.33) | 2.52*** (0.28) | 2.54*** (0.28) | 2.53*** (0.28) | 2.72*** (0.29) | 2.54*** (0.28) | 2.55*** (0.28) |
| Migration quota (work permits per 1,000 citizens) | 1.01 (0.01) | 1.01 (0.01) | 1.00 (0.01) | 1.01 (0.01) | 1.00 (0.01) | 1.01 (0.01) | 1.00 (0.01) | 1.00 (0.01) | 1.01 (0.01) | 1.01 (0.01) |
| Number of ethnic Tajiks per 1,000 citizens | 1.56** (0.27) | 1.60*** (0.28) | 1.78*** (0.26) | 1.59*** (0.25) | 1.57*** (0.27) | 1.56*** (0.27) | 1.57*** (0.27) | 1.56** (0.27) | 1.56*** (0.27) | 1.75*** (0.29) |
| Share of labor force employed in manufacturing (in %) | 1.13*** (0.05) | 1.13*** (0.05) | 1.13*** (0.04) | 1.12*** (0.04) | 1.13*** (0.04) | 1.13*** (0.05) | 1.13*** (0.04) | 1.13*** (0.04) | 1.13*** (0.04) | 1.13*** (0.05) |
| Share of labor force employed in utilities personal and social services (in %) | 0.64* (0.16) | 0.66* (0.16) | 0.64* (0.15) | 0.64* (0.15) | 0.66* (0.16) | 0.65* (0.16) | 0.66* (0.16) | 0.66* (0.16) | 0.66* (0.16) | 0.65* (0.16) |
| Share of labor force employed in mining | 1.04 (0.04) | 1.04 (0.04) | 1.02 (0.05) | 1.07 (0.05) | 1.04 (0.04) | 1.04 (0.04) | 1.04 (0.04) | 1.04 (0.04) | 1.04 (0.04) | 1.04 (0.04) |
| Change in unemployment rate * years of experience | 1.03 (0.02) | |||||||||
| Change in average wage * years of experience | 0.98*** (0.01) | |||||||||
| Construction sector output * years of experience | 0.95 (0.03) | |||||||||
| Change in construction sector output * years of experience | 1.20* (0.12) | |||||||||
| Unemployment rate * years of experience | 1.02*** (0.01) | |||||||||
| Log of average wage * years of experience | 0.90*** (0.03) | |||||||||
| Population size * years of experience | 0.94*** (0.02) | |||||||||
| Population density * years of experience | 0.98*** (0.01) | |||||||||
| Migration quotas * years of experience | 1.00* (0.00) | |||||||||
| Number of ethnic Tajiks per 1,000 citizens * years of experience | 0.96* (0.02) | |||||||||
| Observations | 41,369 | 41,369 | 41,369 | 41,369 | 41,369 | 41,369 | 41,369 | 41,369 | 41,369 | 41,369 |
Conditional logistic regression of Tajik migrants' choice between Russian regions, (2007,2009, and 2011 pooled sample), robustness checks
| Sample including Moscow | Sample excluding Moscow | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | |
| Moscow | 0.96 (0.77) | 1.16 (0.88) | 0.96 (0.77) | 1.29 (1.32) | ||||||
| Unemployment rate, % | 1.04 (0.06) | 1.19*** (0.08) | 1.25*** (0.08) | |||||||
| Log of average wage (in 1,000 RuR) | 36.17*** (15.93) | 3.65** (2.05) | 4.20** (2.39) | 3.08* (1.87) | ||||||
| Log of weighted sum of occupation-specific wages (in 1,000 RuR) | 7.45*** (4.73) | |||||||||
| Log of population size (in 1,000 people) | 4.08*** (1.06) | 2.76*** (0.45) | 3.19*** (0.57) | |||||||
| Population density (in 1,000 people per km2) | 2.47*** (0.15) | 1.88 | ||||||||
| Migration quota (work permits per 1,000 citizens) | 1.00 (0.00) | 0.99* (0.00) | 0.99 (0.00) | 0.99 (0.00) | 0.99 (0.00) | 0.99** (0.00) | 1.00 (0.00) | 1.00 (0.00) | 1.00 (0.00) | 1.00 (0.01) |
| Number of ethnic Tajiks per 1,000 citizens | 1.91*** (0.18) | 1.64*** (0.17) | 2.05*** (0.23) | |||||||
| Share of labor force employed in manufacturing (in %) | 0.95*** (0.02) | 1.11*** (0.03) | 1.10*** (0.03) | |||||||
| Share of labor force employed in utilities personal and social services (in %) | 0.44*** (0.06) | 0.81 (0.13) | 0.79 (0.13) | 0.73* (0.12) | 0.79 (0.13) | 0.91 (0.13) | 0.79 (0.13) | 0.74* (0.12) | 0.80 (0.13) | 0.77 (0.12) |
| Share of labor force employed in mining | 0.72*** (0.04) | 0.98 (0.03) | 0.98 (0.03) | 0.99 (0.03) | 0.98 (0.03) | 1.02 (0.03) | 0.99 (0.03) | 1.00 (0.03) | 0.99 (0.03) | 1.00 (0.03) |
| Change in unemployment rate (in pp.) | 0.89* (0.06) | 0.91 (0.06) | ||||||||
| Change in average wage (in %) | 1.00 (0.02) | 0.98 (0.02) | ||||||||
| Change in construction sector output (in %) | 1.42 (0.44) | 1.85* (0.65) | ||||||||
| Log of construction sector output (1,000 RuR per 1 citizen) | 1.11 (0.24) | 1.43* (0.30) | ||||||||
| 109,142 | 109,142 | 109,142 | 109,142 | 109,142 | 36,040 | 36,040 | 36,040 | 36,040 | ||
Migrant characteristics (2007, 2009, 2011)
| Mean | St. Err. | Number of observations | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Urban household,% | 23.9 | 0.8 | 2,662 |
| Age | 30.0 | 0.2 | 2,662 |
| Male, % | 92.1 | 0.5 | 2,662 |
| Education | |||
| Primary, % | 11.4 | 0.6 | 2,657 |
| Secondary, % | 62.7 | 0.9 | 2,657 |
| Specialized secondary, % | 15.0 | 0.7 | 2,657 |
| Higher or doctoral, % | 10.9 | 0.6 | 2,657 |
| Occupation in Russia | |||
| Elementary occupations (ISCO* 9), % | 17.2 | 0.7 | 2,662 |
| Stall and market salespersons (ISCO 523), % | 4.5 | 0.4 | 2,662 |
| Building frame, building finishers and related traders (ISCO 712, 713), % | 30.2 | 0.9 | 2,662 |
| Speaks Russian, % | 92.1 | 0.6 | 2,082 |
| Stay abroad, months (for return migrants) | 9.9 | 0.3 | 765 |
Migrant characteristics by years of migration experience
| 1–2 years of experience | 3–4 years of experience | >4 years of experience | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean | St. Err. | Mean | St. Err. | Mean | St. Err. | |
| Male, % | 91.4 | 1.1 | 94.0 | 1.4 | 99.2 | 0.8 |
| Education | ||||||
| Primary, % | 10.4 | 1.2 | 9.9 | 1.8 | 5.7 | 2.1 |
| Secondary general, % | 65.2 | 1.9 | 57.4 | 2.9 | 49.2 | 4.5 |
| Specialized secondary, % | 14.6 | 1.4 | 18.8 | 2.3 | 28.7 | 4.1 |
| Higher or doctoral, % | 9.8 | 1.2 | 13.8 | 2.1 | 16.4 | 3.4 |
| Number of observations | 605 | 282 | 122 | |||
Summary statistics for explanatory variables
| Variable | Mean | St. dev. | Min | Max |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Population size (in 1,000 people) | 2,542 | 1,967 | 531 | 11,091 |
| Population density (in 1,000 people per km2) | 0.2 | 0.8 | 0.0003 | 4.3 |
| Migration quota (work permits per 1,000 citizens) | 36.03 | 18.95 | 10 | 94.27 |
| Number of ethnic Tajiks per 1,000 citizens | 1.11 | 0.72 | 0.23 | 3.33 |
| Unemployment rate, % | 6.61 | 2.23 | 1.6 | 12.4 |
| Average wage1 (in 1,000 RuR) | 15,403 | 5,066 | 9,850 | 35,582 |
| Construction sector output1 (in 1,000 RuR per 1 citizen) | 24.98 | 16.75 | 5.21 | 91.78 |
| Change in unemployment rate (in pp.) | -0.56 | 1.18 | -4.1 | 1.8 |
| Change in average wage (in %) | 13.11 | 3.46 | 4.59 | 19.89 |
| Change in construction sector output (in %) | 10 | 15 | -31 | 58 |
| Share of labor force employed in manufacturing (in %) | 17.17 | 5.52 | 4.1 | 27.02 |
| Share of labor force employed in utilities personal and social services (in %) | 3.6 | 0.56 | 2.54 | 4.93 |
| Share of labor force employed in mining (in %) | 1.65 | 2.77 | 0.02 | 12.32 |
Conditional logistic regression of Tajik migrants' choice between Russian regions: interactions with migration experience, age, and education (2009 and 2011)
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unemployment rate, % | 1.29** (0.16) | 1.27** (0.13) | 1.26** (0.13) | 1.27* (0.16) | 1.27** (0.14) | 1.27** (0.14) | 1.27** (0.13) | 1.28** (0.14) | 1.28** (0.14) | 1.28** (0.13) |
| Log of average wage (in 1,000 RuR) | 6.01* (6.08) | 4.82* (4.45) | 5.62* (5.17) | 5.20 (5.51) | 5.54* (5.11) | 5.74* (5.32) | 5.66* (5.26) | 5.58* (5.19) | ||
| Log of construction sector output (1,000 RuR per 1 citizen) | 1.57 (0.57) | 2.99** (1.55) | ||||||||
| Log of population size (in 1,000 people) | 2.96*** (0.70) | 2.93*** (0.68) | 3.34*** (0.89) | 2.90*** (0.69) | 2.96*** (0.71) | 3.08*** (1.04) | 2.92*** (0.70) | 2.95*** (0.70) | 2.98*** (0.71) | 3.32*** (0.89) |
| Population density (in 1,000 people per km2) | 2.57*** (0.31) | 2.70*** (0.33) | 3.01*** (0.33) | 2.51*** (0.27) | 2.53*** (0.27) | 2.52*** (0.27) | 2.54*** (0.33) | 2.54*** (0.28) | 2.56*** (0.28) | 2.90*** (0.32) |
| Migration quota (work permits per 1,000 citizens) | 1.00 (0.01) | 1.01 (0.01) | 1.01 (0.01) | 1.00 (0.01) | 1.00 (0.01) | 1.00 (0.01) | 1.00 (0.01) | 1.01 (0.03) | 1.01 (0.01) | 1.00 (0.01) |
| Number of ethnic Tajiks per 1,000 citizens | 1.56** (0.27) | 1.60*** (0.28) | 1.59*** (0.25) | 1.57*** (0.27) | 1.56*** (0.27) | 1.57*** (0.27) | 1.56*** (0.27) | 1.56*** (0.27) | 1.49 (0.50) | 1.77*** (0.26) |
| Share of labor force employed in manufacturing (in %) | 1.14*** (0.05) | 1.14*** (0.05) | 1.12*** (0.04) | 1.13*** (0.04) | 1.13*** (0.05) | 1.13*** (0.04) | 1.13*** (0.05) | 1.13*** (0.04) | 1.13*** (0.05) | 1.13*** (0.04) |
| Share of labor force employed in utilities personal and social services (in %) | 0.65* (0.16) | 0.66* (0.16) | 0.64* (0.15) | 0.66* (0.16) | 0.65* (0.16) | 0.66* (0.16) | 0.66* (0.16) | 0.66* (0.16) | 0.65* (0.16) | 0.65* (0.15) |
| Share of labor force employed in mining | 1.04 (0.04) | 1.04 (0.04) | 1.07 (0.05) | 1.04 (0.04) | 1.04 (0.04) | 1.04 (0.04) | 1.04 (0.04) | 1.04 (0.04) | 1.04 (0.04) | 1.02 (0.05) |
| Change in unemployment rate (in pp.) | 1.24 (0.40) | |||||||||
| Change in average wage | 0.94 | |||||||||
| (in %) | (0.09) | |||||||||
| Change in construction sector | 16.66* | |||||||||
| output (in %) | (25.28) | |||||||||
| Change in unemployment | 1.04** | |||||||||
| rate * years of experience | (0.02) | |||||||||
| Change in unemployment | 0.99* | |||||||||
| rate * age | (0.01) | |||||||||
| Change in unemployment rate | 0.94 | |||||||||
| * male | (0.30) | |||||||||
| Change in unemployment | 1.02 | |||||||||
| rate * specialized secondary | (0.15) | |||||||||
| education | ||||||||||
| Change in unemployment rate | 0.80 | |||||||||
| * higher education | (0.15) | |||||||||
| Change in average wage * | 0.98*** | |||||||||
| years of experience | (0.01) | |||||||||
| Change in average wage * age | 1.00 | |||||||||
| (0.00) | ||||||||||
| Change in average wage * | 1.08 | |||||||||
| male | (0.07) | |||||||||
| Change in average wage * | 1.08 | |||||||||
| specialized secondary | (0.05) | |||||||||
| education | ||||||||||
| Change in average wage * higher education | 1.13** (0.06) | |||||||||
| Change in construction sector output * years of experience | 1.26** (0.13) | |||||||||
| Change in construction sector output* age | 1.01 (0.03) | |||||||||
| Change in construction sector output* male | 0.12* (0.14) | |||||||||
| Change in construction sector output * specialized secondary education | 0.18* (0.16) | |||||||||
| Change in construction sector output * higher education | 0.18 (0.20) | |||||||||
| Unemployment rate * years of experience | 1.02*** (0.01) | |||||||||
| Unemployment rate * age | 1.00 (0.00) | |||||||||
| Unemployment rate * male | 0.90** (0.04) | |||||||||
| Unemployment rate * specialized secondary education | 0.91** (0.03) | |||||||||
| Unemployment rate * higher education | 0.90** (0.04) | |||||||||
| Log of average wage * years of experience | 0.89*** (0.04) | |||||||||
| Log of average wage * age | 0.98 (0.01) | |||||||||
| Log of average wage * male | 2.35** (0.97) | |||||||||
| Log of average wage * specialized secondary education | 2.26*** (0.67) | |||||||||
| Log of average wage * higher education | 2.40** (0.82) | |||||||||
| Population size * years of experience | 0.94*** (0.02) | |||||||||
| Population size* age | 0.99 (0.01) | |||||||||
| Population size* male | 1.42** (0.24) | |||||||||
| Population size * specialized secondary education | 1.33* (0.21) | |||||||||
| Population size * higher education | 1.56** (0.27) | |||||||||
| Population density * years of experience | 0.97*** (0.01) | |||||||||
| Population density * age | 1.00 (0.00) | |||||||||
| Population density * male | 1.13* (0.07) | |||||||||
| Population density * specialized secondary education | 1.14** (0.06) | |||||||||
| Population density * higher education | 1.17*** (0.06) | |||||||||
| Migration quotas * years of experience | 1.00* (0.00) | |||||||||
| Migration quotas * age | 1.00 (0.00) | |||||||||
| Migration quotas * male | 1.01 (0.02) | |||||||||
| Migration quotas * specialized secondary education | 1.01 (0.01) | |||||||||
| Migration quotas * higher education | 1.01 (0.01) | |||||||||
| Number of ethnic Tajiks per 1,000 citizens * years of experience | 0.96** (0.02) | |||||||||
| Number of ethnic Tajiks per 1,000 citizens * age | 1.00 (0.01) | |||||||||
| Number of ethnic Tajiks per 1,000 citizens* male | 1.12 (0.32) | |||||||||
| Number of ethnic Tajiks per 1,000 citizens * specialized secondary education | 1.28 (0.20) | |||||||||
| Number of ethnic Tajiks per 1,000 citizens * higher education | 1.14 (0.22) | |||||||||
| Construction sector output * years of experience | 0.95 (0.03) | |||||||||
| Construction sector output *age | 0.98** (0.01) | |||||||||
| Construction sector output * male | 1.25 (0.46) | |||||||||
| Construction sector output * specialized secondary education | 1.71*** (0.33) | |||||||||
| Construction sector output * higher education | 1.75** (0.39) | |||||||||
| Observations | 41,328 | 41,328 | 41,328 | 41,328 | 41,328 | 41,328 | 41,328 | 41,328 | 41,328 | 41,328 |
Migrants’ distribution across Russian regions, %
| Total | 2007 | 2009 | 2011 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Moscow | 60.23 | 57.79 | 60.75 | 63.31 |
| St Petersburg | 6.54 | 6.7 | 6.18 | 6.6 |
| Sverdlovskaya | 5.82 | 6.39 | 5.91 | 4.92 |
| Tyumenskaya | 2.19 | 1.56 | 3.23 | 2.24 |
| Irkutskaya obl | 1.85 | 1.4 | 1.08 | 3.13 |
| Samarskaya | 1.85 | 2.18 | 1.75 | 1.45 |
| Chelyabinskaya | 1.75 | 1.71 | 1.34 | 2.13 |
| Novosibirskaya obl | 1.23 | 1.32 | 1.48 | 0.89 |
| Krasnodarsky kray | 1.16 | 1.01 | 0.4 | 2.01 |
| Volgogradskaya obl | 0.92 | 0.86 | 1.08 | 0.89 |
| Kemerovskaya | 0.79 | 0.62 | 0.54 | 1.23 |
| Permsky kray | 0.68 | 0.7 | 0.27 | 1.01 |
| Rostovskaya obl | 0.65 | 0.55 | 0.54 | 0.89 |
| Tatarstan | 0.48 | 0.78 | 0.13 | 0.34 |
| Orenburgskaya obl | 0.48 | 0.47 | 0.67 | 0.34 |
| Ryazanskaya obl | 0.44 | 0.39 | 0.13 | 0.78 |
| Moscow region | 0.41 | 0.23 | 1.08 | 0.11 |
| Tverskaya | 0.41 | 0.16 | 0.81 | 0.45 |
| Kaluzhskaya | 0.34 | 0.16 | 0.67 | 0.34 |
| Khabarovskaya | 0.34 | 0.39 | 0.4 | 0.22 |
| Saratovskaya | 0.31 | 0.47 | 0.4 | 0 |
| Yaroslavsky krai | 0.31 | 0.23 | 0.54 | 0.22 |
| Bashkortostan | 0.21 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.34 |
| Altayski kray | 0.17 | 0.39 | 0 | 0 |
| Omskaya obl | 0.17 | 0.23 | 0.27 | 0 |
| Penzenskaya | 0.17 | 0 | 0.54 | 0.11 |
| Smolenskaya | 0.17 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.22 |
| Astrakhanskaya obl | 0.14 | 0.23 | 0.13 | 0 |
| Voronezskaya | 0.14 | 0 | 0.27 | 0.22 |
| Arkhangelsk | 0.1 | 0.08 | 0.27 | 0 |
| Lipetskaya | 0.1 | 0.08 | 0.27 | 0 |
| Nizhni-Novgorod | 0.1 | 0.08 | 0.13 | 0.11 |
| Tomskaya | 0.1 | 0.08 | 0.13 | 0.11 |
| Tulskaya | 0.1 | 0.16 | 0 | 0.11 |
| Khakassia | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0 | 0 |
| Amurskaya obl | 0.03 | 0 | 0.13 | 0 |
| Kurganskaya | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0 | 0 |
| Tambovskaya | 0.03 | 0 | 0.13 | 0 |
| Ulyanovskaya | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0 | 0 |
| Yakutia | 0.03 | 0 | 0 | 0.11 |
| Bryanskaya obl | 0.03 | 0 | 0 | 0.11 |
| Other | 8.9 | 12.38 | 7.53 | 5.03 |
Conditional logistic regression of Tajik migrants’ choice between Russian regions, (2007, 2009, and 2011 pooled sample)
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unemployment rate, % | 1.20*** (0.08) | 1.28*** (0.10) | 1.20***(0.08) | 1.14** (0.07) |
| Change in unemployment rate (in pp.) | 0.89* (0.06) | |||
| Log of average wage (in 1,000 RuR) | 6.72*** (3.14) | 6.98*** (3.21) | 6.73*** (3.15) | |
| Change in average wage (in %) | 1.00 (0.02) | |||
| Log of construction sector output (1,000 RuR per 1 citizen) | 1.12 (0.24) | |||
| Change in construction sector output (in %) | 1.43 (0.44) | |||
| Log of population size (in 1,000 people) | 2.86*** (0.48) | 3.08*** (0.52) | 2.86*** (0.50) | 3.28*** (0.58) |
| Population density (in 1,000 people per km2) | 2.38*** (0.15) | 2.50*** (0.17) | 2.38*** (0.15) | 2.61*** (0.16) |
| Migration quota (work permits per 1,000 citizens) | 0.99 (0.00) | 0.99 (0.00) | 0.99 (0.00) | 0.99** (0.00) |
| Number of ethnic Tajiks per 1,000 citizens | 1.66*** (0.17) | 1.73*** (0.19) | 1.66*** (0.17) | 1.77*** (0.18) |
| Share of labor force employed in manufacturing (in %) | 1.12*** (0.03) | 1.13*** (0.03) | 1.12*** (0.03) | 1.10*** (0.02) |
| Share of labor force employed in utilities personal and social services (in %) | 0.79 (0.12) | 0.73** (0.12) | 0.79 (0.12) | 0.90 (0.13) |
| Share of labor force employed in mining | 0.98 (0.03) | 0.99 (0.03) | 0.98 (0.03) | 1.02 (0.03) |
| Number of observations | 109,142 | 109,142 | 109,142 | 109,142 |