(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Government | Higher education | Business | Non-profit | |
Spending in R&D (US$ million) | 4.837 |
10.99 |
10.55 |
4.477 |
Country fixed effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Cluster at country level | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Observations | 409 | 405 | 414 | 287 |
0.690 | 0.425 | 0.635 | 0.331 | |
Number of clusters | 36 | 36 | 37 | 25 |
Advanced economies | Labor mobility | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Labor intensity | High | Medium | Low | |
Energy | High | 12.2 | 9.4 | 6.8 |
Medium | 8.6 | 6.6 | 4.7 | |
Low | 6.6 | 5.1 | 3.6 | |
Roads | High | 8.9 | 6.9 | 4.9 |
Medium | 6.2 | 4.8 | 3.4 | |
Low | 4.8 | 3.7 | 2.6 | |
Schools and hospitals | High | 6.4 | 4.3 | 2.4 |
Medium | 4.4 | 3.0 | 1.7 | |
Low | 3.4 | 2.3 | 1.3 | |
Water and sanitation | High | 7.9 | 5.7 | 3.4 |
Medium | 5.6 | 4.0 | 2.4 | |
Low | 4.3 | 3.1 | 1.9 | |
Energy | High | 23.2 | 22.3 | 21.2 |
Medium | 16.2 | 15.6 | 14.8 | |
Low | 12.5 | 12.0 | 11.4 | |
Roads | High | 23.4 | 14.9 | 6.5 |
Medium | 16.4 | 10.4 | 4.6 | |
Low | 12.6 | 8.0 | 3.5 | |
Schools and hospitals | High | 22.2 | 17.7 | 13.1 |
Medium | 15.5 | 12.4 | 9.2 | |
Low | 11.9 | 9.5 | 7.0 | |
Water and sanitation | High | 35.1 | 24.6 | 14.2 |
Medium | 24.6 | 17.2 | 9.9 | |
Low | 18.9 | 13.2 | 7.6 | |
Energy | High | 37.9 | 35.1 | 32.5 |
Medium | 26.6 | 24.6 | 22.7 | |
Low | 20.4 | 18.9 | 17.5 | |
Roads | High | 31.4 | 22.9 | 14.5 |
Medium | 22.0 | 16.0 | 10.2 | |
Low | 16.9 | 12.3 | 7.8 | |
Schools and hospitals | High | 35.6 | 31.1 | 26.5 |
Medium | 24.9 | 21.8 | 18.6 | |
Low | 19.2 | 16.8 | 14.3 | |
Water and sanitation | High | 53.9 | 43.4 | 33.0 |
Medium | 37.8 | 30.4 | 23.1 | |
Low | 29.0 | 23.4 | 17.8 |
Country | Income level | Employment (millions) | GDP (US$ billions) |
---|---|---|---|
Albania | Emerging Market Economy | 1.1 | 15.4 |
Algeria | Emerging Market Economy | 11.1 | 172.8 |
Argentina | Emerging Market Economy | 17.1 | 445.5 |
Armenia | Emerging Market Economy | 1.6 | 13.4 |
Azerbaijan | Emerging Market Economy | 5.0 | 47.2 |
The Bahamas | Emerging Market Economy | 0.2 | 12.7 |
Bahrain | Emerging Market Economy | 0.9 | 38.2 |
Barbados | Emerging Market Economy | 0.1 | 5.2 |
Belarus | Emerging Market Economy | 4.3 | 62.6 |
Belize | Emerging Market Economy | 0.2 | 2.0 |
Bolivia | Emerging Market Economy | 5.6 | 42.4 |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Emerging Market Economy | 1.0 | 20.1 |
Botswana | Emerging Market Economy | 1.5 | 18.7 |
Brazil | Emerging Market Economy | 92.1 | 1,847.0 |
Brunei Darussalam | Emerging Market Economy | 0.2 | 12.5 |
Bulgaria | Emerging Market Economy | 3.1 | 66.2 |
Cabo Verde | Emerging Market Economy | 0.3 | 2.0 |
Chile | Emerging Market Economy | 8.6 | 294.2 |
China | Emerging Market Economy | 775.3 | 1,4140.2 |
Colombia | Emerging Market Economy | 22.9 | 327.9 |
Costa Rica | Emerging Market Economy | 2.3 | 61.0 |
Croatia | Emerging Market Economy | 1.4 | 60.7 |
Dominican Republic | Emerging Market Economy | 4.6 | 89.5 |
Ecuador | Emerging Market Economy | 7.5 | 107.9 |
Egypt | Emerging Market Economy | 25.9 | 302.3 |
El Salvador | Emerging Market Economy | 2.8 | 26.9 |
Hungary | Emerging Market Economy | 4.5 | 170.4 |
India | Emerging Market Economy | 32.0 | 2,935.6 |
Indonesia | Emerging Market Economy | 127.1 | 1,111.7 |
Iran | Emerging Market Economy | 25.1 | 458.5 |
Jamaica | Emerging Market Economy | 1.2 | 15.7 |
Jordan | Emerging Market Economy | 1.8 | 44.2 |
Kazakhstan | Emerging Market Economy | 8.9 | 170.3 |
Kuwait | Emerging Market Economy | 2.7 | 137.6 |
Malaysia | Emerging Market Economy | 15.0 | 365.3 |
Mauritius | Emerging Market Economy | 0.5 | 14.4 |
Mexico | Emerging Market Economy | 54.4 | 1,274.2 |
Mongolia | Emerging Market Economy | 1.3 | 13.6 |
Morocco | Emerging Market Economy | 11.2 | 119.0 |
North Macedonia | Emerging Market Economy | 0.8 | 12.7 |
Oman | Emerging Market Economy | 2.3 | 76.6 |
Pakistan | Emerging Market Economy | 59.8 | 284.2 |
Panama | Emerging Market Economy | 1.9 | 68.5 |
Peru | Emerging Market Economy | 16.9 | 229.0 |
Philippines | Emerging Market Economy | 42.1 | 356.8 |
Poland | Emerging Market Economy | 16.5 | 565.9 |
Qatar | Emerging Market Economy | 2.2 | 191.8 |
Romania | Emerging Market Economy | 8.8 | 243.7 |
Russia | Emerging Market Economy | 72.7 | 1,637.9 |
Serbia | Emerging Market Economy | 2.3 | 51.5 |
Seychelles | Emerging Market Economy | 0.0 | 1.6 |
South Africa | Emerging Market Economy | 16.6 | 358.8 |
Suriname | Emerging Market Economy | 0.1 | 3.8 |
Thailand | Emerging Market Economy | 37.4 | 529.2 |
Trinidad and Tobago | Emerging Market Economy | 0.6 | 22.6 |
Tunisia | Emerging Market Economy | 3.5 | 38.7 |
Turkey | Emerging Market Economy | 28.2 | 743.7 |
Turkmenistan | Emerging Market Economy | 2.5 | 46.7 |
Ukraine | Emerging Market Economy | 16.4 | 150.4 |
United Arab Emirates | Emerging Market Economy | 7.7 | 405.8 |
Uruguay | Emerging Market Economy | 1.7 | 59.9 |
Venezuela | Emerging Market Economy | 8.4 | 70.1 |
Vietnam | Emerging Market Economy | 58.3 | 261.6 |
Australia | Advanced Economy | 12.9 | 1,376.3 |
Austria | Advanced Economy | 4.4 | 447.7 |
Belgium | Advanced Economy | 4.9 | 517.6 |
Canada | Advanced Economy | 19.0 | 1,730.9 |
Cyprus | Advanced Economy | 0.4 | 24.3 |
Czech Republic | Advanced Economy | 5.3 | 247.0 |
Denmark | Advanced Economy | 2.9 | 347.2 |
Estonia | Advanced Economy | 0.7 | 31.0 |
Finland | Advanced Economy | 2.6 | 269.7 |
France | Advanced Economy | 25.6 | 2,707.1 |
Germany | Advanced Economy | 42.0 | 3,863.3 |
Greece | Advanced Economy | 3.9 | 214.0 |
Hong Kong SAR | Advanced Economy | 3.9 | 373.0 |
Iceland | Advanced Economy | 0.2 | 23.9 |
Ireland | Advanced Economy | 2.3 | 384.9 |
Israel | Advanced Economy | 4.0 | 387.7 |
Italy | Advanced Economy | 23.3 | 1,988.6 |
Japan | Advanced Economy | 67.4 | 5,154.5 |
Korea | Advanced Economy | 26.9 | 1,629.5 |
Latvia | Advanced Economy | 0.9 | 35.0 |
Lithuania | Advanced Economy | 1.4 | 53.6 |
Luxembourg | Advanced Economy | 0.5 | 69.5 |
Macao SAR | Advanced Economy | 0.4 | 55.1 |
Malta | Advanced Economy | 0.2 | 14.9 |
Netherlands | Advanced Economy | 8.9 | 902.4 |
New Zealand | Advanced Economy | 2.7 | 204.7 |
Norway | Advanced Economy | 2.7 | 417.6 |
Portugal | Advanced Economy | 5.0 | 236.4 |
Puerto Rico | Advanced Economy | 1.0 | 99.9 |
Singapore | Advanced Economy | 3.7 | 362.8 |
Slovak Republic | Advanced Economy | 2.4 | 106.6 |
Slovenia | Advanced Economy | 1.0 | 54.2 |
Spain | Advanced Economy | 19.8 | 1,397.9 |
Sweden | Advanced Economy | 5.1 | 528.9 |
Switzerland | Advanced Economy | 5.0 | 715.4 |
Taiwan Province of China | Advanced Economy | 11.5 | 586.1 |
United Kingdom | Advanced Economy | 32.8 | 2,743.6 |
United States | Advanced Economy | 156.9 | 21,439.5 |
Sum | 2,204.4 | 83,218.7 |
Advanced economies | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pool | Panel | Without 2008–2009 | Revenue increases | |
Electricity | 4.278 |
2.363 |
2.390 |
2.433 |
Roads | 3.124 |
1.722 |
1.742 |
1.817 |
Schools and hospitals | 2.223 |
0.850 |
0.817 |
0.824 |
Water and sanitation | 2.778 |
1.206 |
1.184 |
1.153 |
Fixed effects | Country | Firm | Firm | Firm |
Clustered at | Firm | Firm | Firm | Firm |
Observations | 43,485 | 43,485 | 38,971 | 27,244 |
0.637 | 0.201 | 0.198 | 0.203 | |
Number of clusters | 5,123 | 5,123 | 5,123 | 5,123 |
Electricity | 8.120 |
7.406 |
8.300 |
7.832 |
Roads | 8.178 |
2.287 |
2.037 |
1.902 |
Schools and hospitals | 7.764 |
4.578 |
4.777 |
3.898 |
Water and sanitation | 12.28 |
4.965 |
5.587 |
4.829 (4.011) |
Fixed effects | Country | Firm | Firm | Firm |
Clustered at | Firm | Firm | Firm | Firm |
Observations | 4,095 | 4,095 | 3,660 | 2,539 |
0.563 | 0.157 | 0.168 | 0.161 | |
Number of clusters | 556 | 556 | 556 | 556 |
Sector | Compustat (NAICS) | Orbis (CPA) |
---|---|---|
Electricity |
|
|
Roads |
|
|
Schools and hospitals | ||
Water and sanitation |
Advanced economies | Countries | Obs. | Mean | Std. Dev. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Revenue | 27 | 43,485 | 11.0 | 14.5 |
Employees | 27 | 43,485 | 45.1 | 74.4 |
Revenue | 14 | 4,095 | 7.7 | 11.8 |
Employees | 14 | 4,095 | 123.4 | 195.0 |