Dimensions of Visitor Satisfaction at Attractions: A Study of Kakum National Park, Ghana

According to Harianto et al. (2020), an “attraction” is any place or thing that has the ability to persuade a person to visit a destination. Lew (1987) defines tourist attractions as “consisting of all those elements of a non-home place that draw discretionary travellers away from their homes. They usually include landscapes to observe, activities to participate in and experiences to remember” (p. 553). Pearce (1991) defines visitor attractions as “a named site with a specific human or natural feature which is the focus of visitor and management attention.” Leask (2010) also argues that the use of the phrase “Visitor attraction” can also be used to cater to the non-overnight tourist market. Notwithstanding the use of the lexicon, the importance of a factor that draws visitors in is irrefutable. Visitors’ need for attractions may stem from various forms of motivation, ranging from pleasure-seeking, recreation and relaxation, education, learning about other cultures, and visiting museums and parks (Leask, 2010; Kempiak et al., 2017).

According to Chen et al. (2020), visitor attractions can include natural features such as beautiful mountains and valleys, scenery, gardens and springs, scenic drive, parks, lakes, rivers, wildlife, caves, and underground formations. Another form of attraction is entertainment, which could include events such as exhibitions, cultural events and festivals, Western musicals, nightlife and entertainment, as well as historical attractions such as landmark and heritage buildings (Biswas et al., 2020).

Attractions are at the core of tourism development in any given destination (Akyeampong, 2008; Jurowski, 2009; Haneef et al., 2019). Other studies also affirm the importance of attractions to tourism by arguing that attractions are an essential component of tourism development (Wanhill, 2008; Manhas et al., 2016).

Attractions provide a focal point, setting the agenda for tourists’ activities at a destination (Leask, 2010; Padrón-Ávila & Hernández-Martín, 2019). There are a number of attributes associated with each destination, such as attractions, services, and infrastructure. However, attractions and the experience they provide are major contributors to overall satisfaction (Boakye & Boohene, 2010; Leask, 2010), and have been labelled as key to determining a destination’s image, which in turn influences tourist satisfaction (Lascu et al., 2018).

The importance of visitors’ satisfaction in the service industry has been acknowledged by several researchers as crucial for a destination’s sustainability and overall success (Veasna et al., 2013; Sukiman et al., 2013; Jarvis et al., 2016; Iniesta-Bonillo et al., 2016; Loi et al., 2017). An understanding of visitor satisfaction is of paramount importance to the tourism industry because it is considered one of the key objectives and indicators of a tourist destination’s successful management (Štumpf et al., 2018). Satisfaction here is defined as an attitude or evaluation that is formed by the customer comparing their pre-purchase expectations of what they would receive with their subjective perceptions of what they actually received (Oliver, 1980). Sadik and Alhassan (2021) also view it as a person’s feelings of pleasure or disappointment by comparing a product’s perceived performance (outcome) in relation to his or her expectation. If the person’s expectations are met, he or she is likely to evaluate his or her experience as satisfactory; conversely, dissatisfaction will surface if the services provided do not meet the visitor’s desires (Otsuka, et al., 2023).

Recognizing the needs of visitors and providing them with memorable experiences, managers of attractions are increasingly appreciating the economic importance of meeting visitors expectations (Adam et al., 2019; Seyfi et al., 2020). Regarding the tourism industry, it has been suggested that when tourists are satisfied with the service dimensions at a destination, they are likely to recommend that destination to others (Hosany et al., 2017). Satisfied tourists tend to engage in positive word-of-mouth communication with others about their memorable experiences (Kozak & Rimmington, 2000; Filieri et al, 2015; Meng & Han, 2018). This in turn contributes to increased rates of tourist patronage, retention, loyalty and acquisition (Swart et al., 2018; Meng & Han, 2018). Invariably, there is a positive association between tourist satisfaction and the long-term profitability and success of the destination.

According to Ali et al. (2021), factors used in evaluating satisfaction of attractions include both tangibles (appearance of physical facilities, including equipment, personnel and communication materials) and intangibles (good ambiance, and experience, among others). Zeithaml et al. (1985) focuses on the intangibles.

These factors of satisfaction have been expounded upon and given the following sets of categories: responsiveness, tangibles, communications, consumables and empathy (Pakurár et al., 2019); product, experience, marketing, culture and leadership (Frochot, 2003); surroundings of the attraction, reception/ticket office, literature (McKercher et al., 2004); and the souvenir selling area, exhibitions, catering, toilets, and the visitor’s overall impression (Nowacki & Kruczek, 2021). Zhong and Moon (2020) showed that the physical environment can powerfully affect customers’ cognition, emotions, and behaviour, and that it is the most thoroughly emphasized factor in the research on satisfaction with attractions.

Ariya et al. (2020) note that an understanding of tourists’ socio-demographic characteristics is significant for tourism marketing management. Socio-demographic characteristics of tourists can include gender, age, income, educational level, nationality occupation and marital status (Zeinali et al., 2014; Amir et al., 2017). According to Adhikari et al. (2021), dimensions of satisfaction vary greatly with these socio-demographic factors, specifically nationality, age, gender, income, and education. Zeinali et al. (2014) and Esu (2015) found that dimensions of satisfaction do not vary with age and income significantly, and that they vary more with gender, education, and occupation. According to Weiler and Ham (2005), there is a significant gender difference in the dimensions of satisfaction, with females expressing higher satisfaction than males in research on the Panama Canal Watershed. Spinks et al. (2005) and Phosikham et al. (2015) make similar assertions about Sunshine Coast tourist attractions and Luang Prabang Province, respectively. This contrasts with the findings of Salim and Mohamed (2014), which showed that males have a higher level of satisfaction than females.

Clifton et al. (2014), argue that satisfaction levels differ with visitors’ educational backgrounds. Salim and Mohamed (2014), in their research on snorkeling experiences in Pulau Payar Marine Park, also found a significant relationship between dimensions of satisfaction and visitors’ educational levels.

With respect to nationality, Montaño et al., (2019) argue that there is a significant difference in the dimensions of satisfaction across the different nationalities of visitors to the Balearic Islands in Spain. On the contrary, Geng et al. (2021) suggest that nationality makes no significant difference in overall satisfaction.

The above evidence pointing to the differences in tourists’ satisfaction dimensions and their socio-demographic characteristics can be described as mixed and contradictory. This, in part, could be attributed to the different socio-cultural contexts and aspects of the tourist activities under study.

Jones and Suh (2000) claimed that two types of consumer satisfaction exist: transaction-specific satisfaction, and overall satisfaction. Transaction-specific satisfaction is attached to a specific encounter with an organization, whereas overall satisfaction is a collective construct describing the level of satisfaction with specific products and services of an organization’s various facets, such as physical facilities (Garbarino & Johnson, 1999). It is based on information from all previous encounters with an organization, and can be viewed as a function of all previous transaction-specific satisfaction (Jones & Suh, 2000).

The underpinning theory for this current study is the transaction-specific theory (Parasuraman et al. 1994; Teas, 1993) which suggests that the satisfaction of a customer is dependent on their experience with specific attributes of a service, based on which they engaged in a transaction. Subsequently, the decision to re-engage in the service transaction in the future is hinged on the customers’ satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the earlier transaction (Seizov & Wulf, 2020). The transaction-specific theory suggests that since customers’ judgement of satisfaction is based on specific proportions, the decision to re-purchase could be ascribed to the customers’ satisfaction with a specific service dimension rather than the overall service. Given the above, when consumer satisfaction is evaluated, researchers should define whether the satisfaction measure is based on overall or transaction-specific satisfaction.

This study aims to define the differences in visitors’ satisfaction dimensions at the KNP of Ghana as they relate to their socio-demographics. Transaction-specific theory was deemed appropriate because KNP has specific service attributes that make it easier to measure visitor satisfaction and comprehend the satisfaction dimensions that tourists consider when traveling to a site. The objective of this study is therefore to answer the following specific questions:

To what extent are visitors satisfied with the service dimensions at KNP?

The Kakum National Park is located in the Central region of Ghana, which has Cape Coast as its capital city and is described as the tourism hub of Ghana because of its numerous tourism sites and facilities (Richmond & Cornelius, 2021). KNP is close to a small community called Abrafo Odumasi and is among the many protected areas in the country developed for touristic purposes. The main attractions at the park are the canopy walkway, bird watching, nature walks and teahouses for night camping (Ghana Heritage Conservation Trust, 2016). According to Yiadom (2015), the KNP is not only considered the greatest and most visited attraction among the national parks in Ghana, but it is also the country’s flagship attraction because of its unique ecotourism attributes (the canopy walkway and the rainforest), which appeal to a greater number of visitors who come to the Central region.

Participation in the study was entirely voluntary. Before participants answered to the survey, they were asked for their informed consent. The participants were given sufficient information about the study so that they could choose whether or not they wanted to participate. Management of attraction and visitors were asked for permission using an introductory letter from the Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management of the University of Cape Coast.

Anonymity was also thoroughly protected. The absence of participant names from the instrument utilized provided assurance of this; since names and other personal information were not linked to the respondents’ responses, the use of questionnaires ensured respondents’ anonymity. The researchers were able to do this by not disclosing or talking about any of the information provided by the respondents to any third parties. The study adhered to confidentiality. These were the relevant conditions put in place to safeguard the rights of all participants. The researchers were able to accomplish this by not disclosing or discussing any information provided by the respondents to a third party. Additionally, information acquired from respondents was only used for the specific reason it was collected. The respondents also received assurances that their participation in the study was voluntary and that they could revoke their consent at any time.

The assumption was that visitors’ satisfaction dimensions would vary with their socio-demographic characteristics. In this study, the socio-demographic characteristics that were recorded were sex, age, marital status, religion, continent of origin, level of education and employment status. This section is important because research has shown that the satisfaction level of visitors varies with their socio-demographic background (Huh & Usyal, 2003; Richins, 2005). Accordingly, a summary of the socio-demographic profile of respondents is presented in Table 1.

Regarding the sex distribution of participants, the results indicate that a little over half (55.9%) of the visitors were made up of males. Traditionally, males have been known to travel more than females, and this could be a contributing factor to the lower patronage of females.

The age characteristic identifies Ghana as appealing to the young market. Over half of the respondents (56.9%) were within the 21–29 age bracket, followed by those aged between 30–39 years (20.2%), while 8.7% of the respondents were younger than 20 years. The indication is that the visitors who visit KNP were generally dominated by young adults between the ages of 21–29, perhaps because the canopy walkway is attractive to this group. This corroborates the popular notion that youth have a high propensity to travel than other segments and tend to spend a lot of time on leisure pursuits due to their exuberance and curiosity to discover new things and places (Richards & Wilson, 2003; Boakye et al., 2013; Dayour, 2013; Otoo & Amuquandoh, 2014; Ghana Tourism Authority, 2022). 8.7% of the respondents were below 20 years, while the smallest proportion (8.2%) of the total respondents at the attraction were aged 50 years and above. The physically rigorous nature of activities at the attraction, especially the canopy walkway, could account for the smaller number of older visitors to the destination.

In terms of marital status, ninety-four (94), representing 25.6% of respondents, were currently married, while 3% had been married in the past (i.e., separated, divorced or widowed). This finding could be the result of the popular notion that single people have the propensity to travel more because they are less likely to have any family responsibilities or obligations. Bojanic’s (1992) study supports this finding, which suggests that as people marry, nightlife and other activities like travel become less important. With regards to religious affiliation, a majority (78.2%) were Christians, followed by atheists (10.9%). Islam recorded 7.6%, and 3.3% belonged to other faiths, including Traditionalist, Buddhist and Jewish. This means that Christianity was the dominant religion among visitors at the attraction during the time of the study.

From the standpoint of the continent of origin, the study observed that Africans (mostly Ghanaian and Nigerian) were predominant among the visitors (61.0%), followed by Europeans (18.8%) and North Americans (17.4%), with only 12 respondents (3.3%) from various other continents, such as South America, Australia and Asia. This result is consistent with the Ghana Tourism Authority’s statistics (2010), which maintain that the bulk of Ghana’s visitors are from the continent of Africa. The remarkable proportion of African arrivals could be attributed to the burgeoning travel culture among the people in the sub-region.

In relation to the level of education, a majority (64.3%) of the visitors were those with university and college education, followed by postgraduates (22.6%). Those with the least level of education were those with secondary school education (13.1%).

Another variable considered was the employment status of respondents. Out of the total respondents, more than half (56.4%) were employed, 39.5%, were students and the smallest number (4.1%) were unemployed. This implies that most of the visitors who visited the attractions at the time of the study were financially sound with regular income and thus had money to spend. Discretionary income is generally needed for a person to travel, and this is possible when they are employed.

Table 2 presents the various dimensions of satisfaction with services experienced by visitors at the destination, with their percentage in agreement, including mean and standard deviation. Overall, visitors indicated that they were satisfied with the destination services with a mean of 2.55. Specifically, visitors were satisfied (M = 2.69) with the destinations’ reliability. Zeinali et al. (2014), defines reliability as the ability of the attraction to deliver the promised service dependably. This implies that the staff at the KNP are well-informed about the attraction and, as such, delivered on visitors’ expectations.

One utmost responsibility of any business is the “duty of care” to its customers, which has a long-term positive impact on the business. Our findings from the study suggest that visitors were also satisfied (M = 2.68) with the level of empathy exhibited by staff at the attractions. This implies that the staff at the attractions were caring, welcoming and hospitable to visitors who visited the destination. Therefore, it may be said that visitors will be willing to visit again and would recommend the KNP to others because they were well cared-for.

Responding promptly to customers’ inquiries is also an important responsibility of every staff member at any institution, and it has a lasting implication for customer satisfaction. Accordingly, visitors agreed that staff at the attractions were willing to help them and provided prompt services, with a corresponding mean of 2.67. This implies that visitors were satisfied with the responsiveness of the staff at the attraction during their visit.

Assuring customers of your expertise and knowledge in the discharge of your duties allays their fears and gives them confidence when dealing with you. In this study, the staff displayed such characteristics with a mean of 2.61, suggesting that visitors were satisfied with the assurance demonstrated by the staff at the various attractions.

Similarly, visitors also expressed satisfaction with the tangibles of the attraction, with an overall mean score of 2.53. Critically, environmental cleanliness is one thing visitors look at when forming opinions about destinations. Price is another dimension to which tourists attach importance to when it comes to choosing a destination. However, most visitors were uncertain about the price of service at the attraction, with a mean of 2.14. Reasons for this uncertainty with price could be associated with the fact that most of the visitors came in groups and/or with a package tour, and therefore did not know the entry price to the attraction. Also, most package tours are time-limited, and as such visitors went back to their buses just after the tour and did not have a chance to explore the prices of products and services at the KNP.

Regarding the most-satisfied service dimensions in order of magnitude, visitors most frequently named reliability, which had the highest overall mean score (M = 2.69), followed by empathy (M = 2.68), responsiveness (M = 2.67), assurance (M = 2.61), and tangibles (M = 2.57). Price, however, was ranked as an uncertain dimension by visitors, with an overall mean score of 2.14 for satisfaction with prices. Aside from visitors being uncertain about the price dimension of the attractions, tangibles at the destination was the least-satisfied dimension. The notion that Ghana’s destination has been faced with sanitation challenges could have been a contributing factor (Teye et al., 2002; Akyeampong, 2008).

Table 3 presents the relationship between visitors’ satisfaction dimensions and their socio-demographic characteristics. The table indicates that some satisfaction dimensions had significant differences across certain socio-demographic variables. With regards to the satisfaction dimensions and sex of respondents, a t-test showed that the value of significance (2-tail) was higher than 0.05, meaning that none of the satisfaction dimensions at the attraction varied with sex of respondents. Hence, the various satisfaction dimensions at the destination (Tangibles, Price, Reliability, Responsiveness, Assurance and Empathy) did not vary with the sexes (male and female) of respondents. This finding was consistent with Weiler and Ham (2005), and Perović et al. (2012), who found that the service dimensions of satisfaction do not vary with gender. However, females were more satisfied than males with the highest mean score across all dimensions, a finding that is also consistent with those of Spinks et al. (2005) and Phosikham et al. (2015).

The findings also indicated that, with the exception of price, none of the satisfaction dimensions at the attraction varied with age. Hence, there exist a statistical differences between the price dimension of the attraction and age at (F = 4.108, p = 0.003). This finding contradicts the study by Zeinali et al. (2014), whose findings suggested that there is no significant variation between age and satisfaction with price and value. It also came to light that the 18 – 20 age group were more satisfied with tangibles, with the highest mean (M = 2.78), and ages 21–29 were also highly satisfied with the assurance dimension (M = 2.73), and ages 30–39 were more satisfied with reliability as well (M = 2.73). The ages from 40–49 and 50+ were also highly satisfied with tangibles and responsiveness, with means of 2.86 and 2.90, respectively. The reason for these responses might be that every age group has its own characteristics that differ from each other, and as such have different priorities with regards to the dimensions of satisfaction.

At the p > 0.05 level, none of the satisfaction dimensions varied with religion, marital status or employment status of respondents at the destination. Visitors across all religions were satisfied with most of the dimensions at the destination, except price. Specifically, Christians were more satisfied with reliability (M=2.74) while atheists, Muslims and other religious affiliations showed the highest satisfaction with responsiveness, with means of 2.95, 2.75, and 2.75, respectively.

Respondents who were single and those who were married recorded the highest levels of satisfaction for reliability (M = 2.74 and M = 2.81, respectively), while those who had been previously married (Divorced, Widowed or Separated) were more satisfied with the tangible aspects of the attractions. Price satisfaction showed a statistical variation with visitors’ levels of education at the attraction (F = 3.24, P = 0.04), but the remaining satisfaction dimensions showed otherwise. This finding contradicts that of Esu (2015), who found that visitors’ satisfaction with price and value does not vary with educational level.

Aside from price, all the categories under level of education showed satisfaction with the various dimensions. The extent of agreement was higher among secondary school graduates across all the satisfaction dimensions. Similar findings on satisfaction emerged in the study of Salim and Mohamed (2014). Their findings revealed that those with secondary-school education had the highest mean satisfaction among the education-level groups.

With regard to employment status, visitors expressed different satisfaction levels in different dimensions. Specifically, students were more satisfied with empathy (M = 2.72), while unemployed respondents were most satisfied with the assurance dimension of the attractions (M = 2.87). Respondents who were employed, however, recorded the highest mean of for the reliability dimension of the destination (M = 2.79).

Contrary to this, Table 3 indicates that every satisfaction dimension of the attraction varied with respondents’ continent of origin at p ≤ 0.05 levels, except for reliability. Specifically, the table showed a significant difference between tangibles (F = 5.70, p = 0.001), price (F = 12.57, p < 0.001), responsiveness (F = 4.98, p = 0.002), assurance (F = 6.31, p < 0.001), empathy (F = 5.45, p = 0.001) according to continent of origin.

The tourism industry is considered an important contributor to the growth of many countries’ economies, and Ghana is no exception. For the industry to remain competitive, it is important that it meets the changing needs and demands of the tourism market. Thus, it has become pertinent for destination managers to study the dimensions relating to satisfaction at attractions and formulate strategies to retain visitors. The current study assessed how dimensions of satisfaction (tangibles, price, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy) vary with socio-demographic characteristics (age, sex, religion, continent of origin, marital status, level of education and employment status) of visitors at KNP in the Central region of Ghana.

From the study, an overall mean score of 2.55 was recorded for satisfaction dimensions, indicating that all the respondents agreed that they were satisfied with the whole service experience at the destination. Even though visitors were generally satisfied with the attractions’ services, their satisfaction with the price was not unanimous. This finding supports transaction-specific theory, which posits that satisfaction of customers is based on their experiences of specific attributes of the service, based upon which the customers make a transaction. “Gender” and “Employment status” have no significant differences in satisfaction in relation to “Tangibles,” “Price,” “Reliability,” “Responsiveness,” “Assurance” and “Empathy.” However, “Continent of Origin” has significant differences in satisfaction in five of the six dimensions, namely “Tangibles,” “Price,” “Responsiveness,” “Assurance” and “Empathy.” Age and marital status only have a significant influence on satisfaction related to “Price”.

In terms of practical recommendations, the finding of significant variations between the price dimension of satisfaction and the different ages, educational backgrounds and price dimensions, as well as the finding that the satisfaction dimensions of tangibles, price, responsiveness, assurance, empathy vary with different continents of origin, necessitate the need for tourism operators and destination managers to continue to market these important segments and develop strategies for repeat visitation to destinations.

With a plethora of studies (Salim & Mohamed, 2014; Zeinali et al., 2014; Esu, 2015; Adetola et al., 2016) postulating how dimensions of satisfaction vary with socio-demographic characteristics of visitors, it is expected that the outcomes of this study will inform destination managers about the extent to which satisfaction dimensions vary with socio-demographic characteristics at attractions, allowing them to customize services to accommodate the varying demographic segments who serve as their clientele.

One of the main advantages of studying satisfaction dimensions is that it offers insights into particular dimensions affecting visitor satisfaction (Santos et al., 2022). Following the identification of these dimensions, researchers and attraction managers can concentrate their efforts on improving the features that have the greatest effects on visitor happiness. To enhance the overall visitor experience, this information can be used to guide decision-making, marketing strategies, and resource allocation.

Studying visitor satisfaction dimensions also makes it possible for destination and attraction managers to understand visitor preferences and expectations on a more sophisticated level (Richards et al., 2020). Different people may place a higher priority on various aspects of their attraction experience. The level of customer service may be important to certain visitors, while the availability of amenities may be more important to others. Researchers can determine the characteristics that influence visitor satisfaction for different visitor groups by examining these dimensions, which enables attraction managers to customize their offerings to satisfy the varied wants and preferences of their target audiences.

Moreover, analysing how dimensions of satisfaction differ with the socio-demographic profiles of visitors provides valuable insights into the role of individual characteristics in shaping visitor experiences. Socio-demographic factors such as age, gender, income, education level, and continent of origin can influence visitor expectations, preferences, and evaluations of attractions. By examining how these dimensions of satisfaction vary across different socio-demographic profiles, researchers can identify potential disparities and inequalities in visitor experiences. This knowledge can inform efforts to promote inclusivity, diversity, and accessibility within attractions, ensuring that all visitors have equitable opportunities for satisfaction.

Although the current study reveals a variation between some satisfaction dimensions and some socio-demographic characteristics at the KNP, it did not, however, confirm where the differences occur between the groups were statistically significant. Future research should employ a post-hoc test to ascertain where the differences occur within the significant groups. Also, since the study’s only collected data on visitors to KNP in April and May 2019, the research results may lack generalizability. The application of the study to other national parks in Ghana, as well as different time frames, would allow for wider generalizations to be made from the results.

Moreover, this study concerned itself with the differences that exist between satisfaction dimensions and the socio-demographic profiles of visitors at the attractions without considering the outcomes resulting from satisfaction. Hosany et al. (2017) argue that satisfied customers are likely to be loyal and also recommend the destination to others. Hence, future studies should explore the post-visit behavioural intention of visitors at the attraction, investigating whether visitors are willing to recommend and revisit the destination again as a result of their satisfaction, because other factors, such as the lack of diversified tourism products at the destination, can deter a satisfied visitor from revisiting in the future.