Marketing and branding-oriented goals for the development of Functional Urban Areas: evidence from Poland
, and | Oct 15, 2020
Published Online: Oct 15, 2020
Page range: 57 - 73
Received: Jan 30, 2020
Accepted: Sep 30, 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/emj-2020-0019
Keywords
© 2020 Anna Matwiejczyk et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Extensive urbanisation has led to the introduction of the urban marketing concept. This concept became widely used after 1990 as a result of increased competition among cities aiming to attract as many tourists, residents or investors as possible (Alexa, 2010). Since then, the level of competitiveness has been steadily increasing. Over two decades, it became relevant not only to cities but also to regions and nations that regularly assess the improvement and promotion of their image against those of their competitors (Metaxas, 2010). One of the ways to compete for residents and investors is to create a development strategy. Such projects enable FUAs to compete on an international level (Alperytė & Išoraitė, 2019). However, it is also important to act on a national level, to which local or regional development strategies contribute.
The first tangible attempts to define the term “Functional Urban Areas” can be found in the document created in 2004 by the European Spatial Planning Observatory Network (ESPON 111 — Final Report, 2004). The first Polish references can be found in the Concept of Spatial Development of the Country 2030 (NSDC: 2030, 2011). According to these definitions, a FUA can be defined as a spatially continuous settlement system consisting of separate units covering a dense urban area and a functionally-related urbanised zone (Kurek et al., 2020). Due to the evident measures undertaken by Functional Urban Areas within frameworks included in their Strategies for Integrated Territorial Investment, they have gained considerable recognition both in Poland and abroad (Kociuba, 2015).
A region that aims to become attractive for inhabitants and visitors must create a brand using marketing activities regardless of the size and type of an administrative unit. The marketing of places is primarily a philosophy whose principal purpose is to develop, communicate, convey and exchange urban offers that have a particular value for the community and visitors of a city. Such activities require the coordinated application of marketing tools (Braun, 2008). At this stage, building brand awareness goes beyond the previously known traditional methods of place promotion. A more effective approach involves the ability to combine symbolic and functional values, which is proof of a robust and modern image of the place (Boisen et al., 2018). Branding can be considered a complex management strategy that aims to go further than just managing the image or its perception (Ye et al., 2018). The development of the brand concept also led to changes in related assumptions and objectives. They became more dependent on emotional and functional benefits, on a process and relational approach linked by the fact that the brand is co-created by all involved parties (Daszkiewicz & Wołosecka, 2019). Thanks to the development of place branding, it has become possible to expand the related research areas, including such disciplines as marketing, urban planning, sociology or public policy (Glińska & Rudolf, 2019; Lucarelli & Berg, 2011).
The main objective of marketing activities in terms of place promotion is the positioning of presence and strengthening the awareness of residents, tourists and investors (Klijn et al., 2012). The region's brand consists of various elements, including FUAs. Some of these elements cannot be modified (e.g., location), while others can (e.g., the development of modern infrastructure) (Papademetriou & Sumption, 2013). From a different perspective, a brand can be considered as a kind of relationship between the owner and the user (Raganowicz, 2018; Juščius et al., 2005). Strengthening of the relationship also strengthens the brand (Klijn et al., 2012). The unpredictable character of the ever-changing environment, which is particular to European cities, is gaining greater interest among researchers and practitioners (Kavaratzis, 2004). The urbanisation of a growing number of areas makes it increasingly more important to monitor the local amenities that affect the quality of life of urban residents (Daams et al., 2016). On a global scale, city councils strive to manage their territorial brand and correctly identify their niche to increase the visibility of their areas (Judd, 1995; Markusen & Schrock, 2006; quoted in: Hultman et al., 2016).
The paper aimed to identify the marketing and branding goals for the development of FUAs in Poland and determine activities that facilitate the achievement of these goals by the units. The aim was achieved by an empirical content analysis of documents outlined as Strategies for Integrated Territorial Investments of 17 FUAs in Poland.
For many years, organisational and institutional documents have been the core of qualitative research. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of journal articles that mention document analysis as part of methodology (Bowen, 2009) in the context of both region branding (Daszkiewicz & Wołosecka, 2019) and city branding (Raganowicz, 2018). Consequently, such research can be used as part of the planned methodology.
This article consists of the following parts: in the first chapter, the authors cover the essence of FUAs and the principal theoretical aspects of place branding; in the second chapter, they explain the proposed methodology, and in the third, they analyse the strategic plans of FUAs with a focus on their marketing components.
The last chapter presents a discussion and formulates conclusions. It should be noted that the authors undertook preliminary exploratory research.
The concept of a Functional Urban Area (FUA) has been known for a long time under different names. Modern cities encounter a wide range of challenges, which can be perceived as either profitable or harmful depending on the way they are resolved. A city and associated areas are a field of interest for many articles and other scientific outputs. So far, however, they have concerned such issues as a commercial city, urban complex, economic areas or a city's sphere of influence but not FUAs as such (Bartosiewicz, 2016). The most efficient functioning of a FUA can be ensured by addressing such issues as the ageing of the population, technical infrastructure, waste management, environmental pollution, urban logistics, areas of poverty and wealth, low level of citizen participation in public affairs and urban sprawl (Winkowska et al., 2019; Szpilko, 2020; Szpilko et al., 2020). As frequently emphasised by the literature, a city can be considered urbanised, provided it meets certain conditions regarding the proximity of the main urban areas and population (Harris et al., 2019). To be recognised as a FUA, the place must be spatially continuous and consist of separate administrative units as well as meet population requirements (Kurek et al., 2020).
The OECD, in cooperation with the EU (Eurostat and EC-DG Regio), created the definition of a FUA due to problems with the earlier term “metropolitan areas”. This definition did not allow to compare individual metropolitan areas with one another. Metropolitan areas were a subcategory with a population between 500 000 and 1.5 million inhabitants (OECD, 2013).
In Poland, FUAs are mostly created around voivodship capitals, although not in all cases (Śleszyński, 2013). According to the Concept of National Spatial Planning 2030 (MRD, 2012), there are four basic types of FUAs which are distinguished by their cores and adjacent zones. The first type is presented in this article, i.e. voivodship centres (with the capital of the voivodship as the core). The other distinguished types are regional, sub-regional and local centres (NSDC, 2030).
There is a functional relationship between the FUA core and related urban zones, which is regulated by the OECD. According to the definition, “a FUA consists of urban cores with a population density of more than 1 500 inhabitants per square kilometre (and 1 000 inhabitants per square kilometre for the USA and Canada) and at least 15% of the working population in the city centre”. Historically, the creation of a FUA is associated in particular with the increased number of commutes as a result of unsatisfied demand for work within its boundaries, characteristic in the conditions of accelerated industrialisation (Busłowska et al., 2017). Such cooperation, however, does not exclude natural competition that occurs between the units within a FUA.
This study considers essential the fact that most FUAs are obligated to create Strategies for Integrated Territorial Investments (ITI). Such documents are particularly important because their creation supports the sustainable development of each unit within a FUA. The strategies promote cooperation and strengthen the territorialisation of constituent units; they help to streamline and enhance financial programming. In the case of Poland, each FUA created around a voivodship capital is required to create such a document (Kociuba et al., 2018).
In Poland, the concentric spatial system is the most common type of urban arrangement. The significance of FUAs that have a voivodship capital at their core (e.g., Warsaw or Krakow) allow concluding that FUAs undergo the most substantial development processes. This development affects the surrounding area of the entity, which proves the diffusion of distance-dependent development processes (Szafranek, 2018).
The creation of a FUA must be accompanied by premises that unambiguously indicate possible benefits for the component units. Such benefits include, among others, cheaper transport, lower costs of living and maintenance in the city, cheaper production and logistics. The membership in a FUA increases the level of satisfaction of residents by improving their quality of life. It begins to attract more and better-educated people (including farmers) who want to live in supported areas. Increased national and international competitiveness can be considered the overall benefit and goal of a FUA (Yunfeng & Yueqi, 2019). FUAs, as important centres of social activity, above all, follow the path of sustainable urban development (Paradowska & Platje, 2015).
Poland was chosen for this analysis primarily because of dynamically developing and widely functioning FUAs in the country. This decision is supported by the fact that in Poland (as well as in other countries of Central and Eastern Europe), changes in areas, such as the demographic structure, occurred exceptionally quickly after the collapse of the communist system (Kurek et al., 2020). A dominating reason for selecting Poland for the analysis was the rapid change in views from the post-socialist belief that urban planning is contrary to the market to the adoption of the idea of a free market (Slach et al., 2019).
Poland is located in the centre of Europe and shares borders with seven countries: Russia, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, and Germany. Poland has a three-tier territorial division into voivodships, counties and municipalities (Kaczmarek, 2016). According to data available on the website of the Central Statistical Office as of 1 January 2019, Poland had 16 voivodships, 314 counties and 66 towns with county rights, and 2 477 municipalities (including 302 urban municipalities, 638 urban-rural municipalities and 1 537 rural communes) (Central Statistical Office, 2019).
It is worth noting that various scientific studies use the term “Functional Urban Area” interchangeably with “Urban Functional Area”. This article uses the term “Functional Urban Area” following the definition by the OECD, to which Poland, and therefore the analysed territorial units, belong.
As an area of scientific research, place marketing appeared in the literature at the end of the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990; Kotler et al., 1993; Ward, 1998). In the late 1990s, discussions extended to the broader context of structural changes in cities and regions. Also, place marketing became more important in light of growing competition among territories (Zenker & Braun, 2010).
Territorial marketing should be considered as a concept of managing a territorial unit according to its marketing orientation, which is intricately linked to the strategic planning approach (Florek, 2013). It defines territorial marketing as a social and managerial process aimed at achieving the objectives of local actors, focused on ensuring the long-term prosperity of inhabitants by meeting the needs of local partners (Florek, 2013).
The application of place marketing became necessary as a result of technological progress as well as increased mobility of people and resources in the 21st century. As globalisation trends progressed, there emerged a need to develop more advanced theories of territorial marketing. Nowadays, places that aim to stand out on the market must have a distinctive image, i.e., strive to eliminate negative features while exposing their unique resources, such as cultural heritage, architecture, local skills, etc. (Maheshwari et al., 2012). Similarly to other marketing concepts, place marketing evolved, accompanied by the emergence or development of new interesting issues in this area of study. According to Kavaratzis (2004), place branding is the current developmental stage of place marketing. Consequently, in the process of building a brand, territorial units increasingly focus their place-marketing efforts on evoking emotional, mental and psychological associations as opposed to functional associations, which, however, is not the same as ignoring them (Florek, 2014).
Nowadays, place brands operate in various forms (national, regional, tourist, urban branding) and there is no doubt that place branding is somewhat a well-established area of academic research (Hankinson, 2015). Now, it is not only a growing academic discipline but also an increasingly common practice used by local governments (Kavaratzis & Hatch, 2013).
Historically, branding existed as a way of differentiating products offered by manufacturers; however, nowadays, this term has evolved and become more sophisticated (Room, 1992). Branding is integrated into the functioning of economic entities of different types and levels. The role of branding in local and regional development is recognised as a relevant topic (Zenker & Jacobsen, 2015). Territorial units of different categories actively use marketing and branding tools to intensely compete for tourists and new residents (Gilboa & Herstein, 2012). Over the years, the significance of cities as territorial units has been growing; however, now, the power concentration at the national level gives way to the regional, metropolitan and city levels (Ye & Björner, 2018). City branding is used for different purposes: (a) to communicate the competitive advantage; (b) to attract investors, tourists, and labour force; and (c) to focus on residents and other internal audiences (Ye & Björner, 2018).
Gilboa and others emphasise that by implementing branding techniques in the management process, city authorities gain the opportunity to integrate their stakeholders around a new competitive identity, which they then communicate to their target audience (Gilboa et al., 2015). Therefore, branding is becoming an increasingly common practice used to “sell” certain characteristics of a city (e.g., its history, lifestyle or culture) to gain new opportunities, prestige or advantage in a competitive environment (Zhang & Zhao, 2009).
Strategic marketing and territorial branding aim to provide a position in the perception of customers by having a recognisable image. Therefore, a city must identify and define a combination of offers and benefits that meet the expectations of different target groups (Kotler et al., 1999). When deciding on a strategic approach to shaping the city's brand, municipal authorities look for the distinguishing features of its identity to build an image that would be attractive externally and internally (i.e., for its habitants) (Glińska & Florek, 2013). For example, territorial units aspiring to boost tourism may base their strategies on such distinguishing features as tourist attractions, leisure activities, high-quality services, natural, cultural and social values, climate, infrastructure, accessibility and quality of transport, attitudes of inhabitants towards tourists, price levels, economic and social relations, etc. (Prayag, 2011).
The implementation of city-branding policies aims to support the city in its appropriate reaction to current social and economic challenges (Glińska & Rudolf, 2019). City branding is a complex process that must account for many factors and associations while shaping a brand of a specific territory (Fan, 2006). The implementation of branding strategies allows cities to meet the requirements of their stakeholders more efficiently, whether they are citizens, business people or visitors (Gilboa et al., 2015).
A recognisable brand of a city attracts tourists, new inhabitants and businesses, while reassuring current residents of the correctness of their decision to stay in their city (Merrilees et al., 2013). A city with a strong and recognisable brand can offer many benefits. These include the ability to attract external investment, increased inbound tourism rates, greater credibility and trust on the part of investors, increased political influence, better and more effective partnerships with other cities, institutions, public and private organisations, the effect of the “city of origin” on goods and services, as well as civic pride (greater satisfaction of residents) (Middleton, 2011; Bartosik-Purgat, 2018).
Since FUAs merge the features of several territories, the approach for their marketing and branding becomes more sophisticated. Strategies for Integrated Territorial Investments are created to highlight the partnership of territorial units within a FUA through common objectives and the agreed use of financial resources. Branding and marketing are one of the tasks. Metropolitan areas are particularly advanced in the development of a territorial brand. As larger cities have an extended history of connections with neighbouring local governments, their work on the branding concept is much more advanced (Glińska et al., 2016). Even though the concept of a territorial brand can be considered interdisciplinary, in Poland, it has been used mainly from a marketing perspective. Thus, the concept is excluded from the field of public management with some exception of Strategies for Integrated Territorial Investments (Florek et al., 2017).
The chosen topic of the article justifies the authors’ focus on the analysis of Functional Urban Areas and city branding issues. A preliminary analysis was carried out, establishing 217 scientific studies on FUAs in the Scopus database. Noticeably, city branding and marketing are not a new topic among scientists. In the Scopus database, keywords “city marketing” or “city branding” appear in 697 publications. However, the database seems to have no publication addressing both topics — FUAs and city marketing/branding — at the same time. Therefore, as this article concerns FUAs and city marketing/branding, it can help to fill the gap.
VOSviewer analysis was conducted on FUA issues subsequent to a niche in the literature that was found comparing topics on FUAs and city branding (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1
Map of keywords resulting from the search on topics concerning Functional Urban Areas in the Scopus database
Source: elaborated by the authors based on the Scopus database and using VOSviewer software.
The Scopus database offers 217 publications with the keywords “functional urban area”, “functional urban areas”, “Functional Urban Area” or “Functional Urban Areas”. The first publication is dated 1973. Before that date, the topic was not popular, and publications were rare in 1973–2008. The frequency of publications was one per year, except for 2007 that had two publications. In 2009–2015, up to 9 manuscripts per year were published on the subject. In 2016–April 2020, the topic became more widespread, and the number of publications varied from 24 in 2017 to 51 in 2019. In total, 1 912 keywords were used in 217 publications.
VOSviewer software helped to identify three clusters based on the keywords that occurred at least five times in the publications. The total number of keywords that met the limitation was 87. The first cluster (red) was made based on the main keywords “functional urban area”, “urban area” and “urban development”; it covers the aspects of accessibility, agglomeration, commuting, Europe, European Union, France, functional urban area, functional urban areas, Germany, groundwater, groundwater pollution, groundwater resources, integrated approach, Italy, Lombardy, metropolitan area, Milan, Milano (Lombardy), mobility, Poland, Poland (central Europe), polycentrism, socioeconomic conditions, Spain, spatial analysis, spatial planning, suburban area, urban area, urban development, urban growth, urban policy, urban sprawl, urban transport, and urbanisation. The second cluster (green) was created using the main keyword “China”; it covers the aspects of air pollutant, air pollution, air quality, article, atmospheric pollution, chemical analysis, china, cities, city, concentration (composition), dust, ecology, environmental monitoring, heavy metal, heavy metals, housing, human, humans, particulate matter, pollution, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, principal component analysis, roads and streets, rural areas, soil, and soils. The third cluster (blue) was made using the main keywords “urban planning” and “functional areas”; it covers the aspects of big data, cluster analysis, data mining, economics, environmental management, functional areas, functional regions, GIS (Geographical Information System), Guangdong, Guangzhou, land use, point of interest, population statistics, remote sensing, satellite imagery, spatial distribution, spatiotemporal analysis, statistics, sustainable development, trajectories, urban areas, urban ecosystems, Functional Urban Area, urban planning, and urban transportation.
In general, the clusters are not significantly related to each other. The main focus is on urban planning and ecological issues. The marketing-related topics from the perspective of FUAs are not popular among researchers; therefore, this article contributes to the less investigated thematic scope within the subject area of FUAs.
Document analysis — namely, the systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating printed and electronic (computer-based and distributed via the Internet) documents — was used as a research method to achieve the aim of the article. Similarly to other analytical qualitative research methods, document analysis focuses on data examination and interpretation to get a sense as well as understand and develop empirical knowledge (Bowen, 2009). It can be used as a basic or a complementary method to the research process (Bowen, 2009). In the latter case, document analysis is used in combination with two or more qualitative research methods for triangulation — “the combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon” (Denzin, 1970). This article also treated the results of the document analysis as an introduction to individual in-depth interviews. The empirical data obtained from the document analysis was used by the authors to support the formulation of questions for in-depth interviews, which are planned in the next phase of the research project.
Document analysis may cover different categories of documents, including those owned by public institutions (Bowen, 2009), such as the central or local government. Such documents are analysed to determine policies implemented by these organisations (Alsalloum & Brown, 2019; Huang et al., 2010). They may also include strategic studies created by entities that coordinate the activities of local government units or their partnerships (Rogacewicz, 2018). Such types of documents became the subject of analysis for this article.
The analysis of the content of documents is widespread. It seeks to quantify the content in terms of categories in a systematic and replicable manner (Kolbe & Burnett, 1991). At the same time, this process allows organising information into categories related to the central questions of the research (Bowen, 2009).
The analysis focused on the content of strategic documents drafted by the offices of management boards of Polish FUA associations. The typology of functional urban areas dates back to the 1990s when the collection of data began for European cities with at least 100 000 inhabitants under the projects of Urban Audit and Large City Audit (official GUS site accessed on 18 April 2020). According to data available on the official website stat.gov.pl, Poland had 58 FUAs in 2018. 17 FUAs were selected for the analysis. Table 1 presents the names and the most important characteristics of the selected areas. The information was gathered from official websites of FUAs that contain centres of voivodships.
General characteristics of Polish FUAs that cover voivodship centres based on current Strategies for Integrated Territorial Investments until 2020
| Białystok | 1 728 | 10 | 411 531 | 65% |
| Bydgoszcz-Toruń | 3 744 | 25 | 852 705 | 70% |
| Gdańsk-Gdynia-Sopot | 5 500 | 57 | 1 500 000 | 62% |
| Gorzów Wielkopolski | 770 | 5 | 153 300 | 65% |
| Katowice | 5 577 | 81 | 2 784 951 | 54% |
| Kielce | 1 341 | 12 | 339 549 | 50% |
| Kraków | 4 065 | 15 | 1 508 900 | 62% |
| Lublin | 1 582 | 16 | 545 007 | 61% |
| Łódź | 2 500 | 30 | 1 100 000 | 60% |
| Olsztyn | 1 600 | 7 | 232 267 | 65% |
| Opole | 2 370 | 21 | 339 269 | 66% |
| Poznań | 3 082 | 23 | 1 014 194 | 65% |
| Rzeszów | 1 047 | 13 | 363 680 | 66% |
| Szczecin | 2 795 | 15 | 687 247 | 64% |
| Warszawa | 2 932 | 40 | 2 714 987 | 60% |
| Wrocław | 2 338 | 19 | 887 943 | 64% |
| Zielona Góra | 964 | 5 | 185 209 | 68% |
Source: elaborated by the authors based on official FUA websites and individual Strategies for Integrated Territorial Investments.
The analysis focused on FUA cities that are also Polish voivodship capitals because of two interconnected facts: 1) according to the National Urban Policy, voivodship authorities are obligated to create ITI strategies for an integrated approach to development; and 2) the strategies must be created by territories within such FUAs to receive support from the EU Funds (KPM, 2015). Such requirements made FUAs with voivodship centres the best-developed FUAs in Poland with ITI strategies that are widely available for analysis.
The document analysis covered 17 Strategies for Integrated Territorial Investments for 2014–2020 prepared for FUAs with voivodship centres (Table 1). The basic documents define development objectives and directions of activities of particular functional areas. On the EU level, the strategies are imposed by Regulations (EU) of the European Parliament and of the Council No 1301/2013 of 17 December 2013, No 1303/2013 of 17 December 2013 and No 1304/2013 of 17 December 2013. At the national level, the obligation is established in Article 74 of the Act on Municipal Self-Government of 8 March 1990 (i.e. Polish Dz. U. of 2015, item 1515), relevant agreements of individual FUAs concerning joint implementation of Integrated Territorial Investments of the Municipal Functional Area, and other legislation. These documents were accessed in pdf on websites of associations coordinating the activities of various FUAs (Table 2).
List of analysed documents
| Białystok Functional Urban Area | Strategy for Integrated Territorial Investments in the FUA of Białystok for 2014–2020 | 393 | |
| Bydgoszcz–Toruń Functional Urban Area | Strategy for Integrated Territorial Investments in the FUA of Bydgoszcz–Toruń | 290 | |
| Metropolitan Area Gdańsk–Gdynia–Sopot | Strategy for Integrated Territorial Investments in the Metropolitan Area of Gdańsk–Gdynia–Sopot up to 2020 | 153 | |
| Gorzów Wielkopolski Functional Urban Area | Strategy for Integrated Territorial Investments in the FUA of Gorzów Wielkopolski | 202 | |
| Katowice Functional Urban Area | Strategy for Integrated Territorial Investments in the Central Subregion of Śląsk Voivodship for 2014–2020 | 332 | |
| Kielce Functional Urban Area | Strategy for Integrated Territorial Investments in the FUA of Kielce for 2014–2020 | 475 | |
| Kraków Functional Urban Area | Strategy for Integrated Territorial Investments in the FUA of Kraków Strategy for Integrated Territorial | 135 | |
| Lublin Functional Urban Area | Investments in the FUA of Lublin for 2014–2020 | 153 | |
| Łódź Functional Urban Area | Strategy for the Development in the FUA of Łódź 2020+ | 279 | |
| Olsztyn Functional Urban Area | Strategy for the FUA of Olsztyn | 215 | |
| Opole Functional Urban Area | Strategy for Integrated Territorial Investments in the FUA of Opole Agglomeration | 148 | |
| Poznań Functional Urban Area | Strategy for Integrated Territorial Investments in the FUA of Poznań | 182 | |
| Rzeszów Functional Urban Area | Strategy for Integrated Territorial Investments in the FUA of Rzeszów | 319 | |
| Szczecin Functional Urban Area | Strategy for Integrated Territorial Investments in the FUA of Szczecin | 300 | |
| Warszawa Functional Urban Area | Strategy for Integrated Territorial Investments in the FUA of Warsaw 2014–2020+ | 173 | |
| Wrocław Functional Urban Area | Strategy for Integrated Territorial Investments in the FUA of Wrocław | 327 | |
| Zielona Góra Functional Urban Area | Strategy for Integrated Territorial Investments in the FUA of Zielona Góra | 206 |
Each of the analysed strategies had a similar structure which allowed to separate the diagnostic part from the strategic part. In each document, the latter was analysed in detail, with an emphasis on objectives, priorities and actions planned for 2014–2020.
The analysis of 17 Strategies for Integrated Territorial Investments showed that the documents have a generalised structure. Each document contains a table of contents, a list of used abbreviations and an introduction. The following chapters describe the methodology for strategy development, the legal basis for the implementation and the diagnosis of the supported area (demography or infrastructure). This part also provides basic findings from diagnostic conclusions and SWOT analysis. Then, documents present a section on development objectives to be achieved within the established ITI, selected priorities and planned actions. Next, the document evaluates the coherence of the ITI strategy with other strategic and operational documents, provides the financial framework and financial plan. The following sections provide conditions and procedures to be followed in the implementation of the ITI strategy and the selection criteria for projects in the ITI. Finally, the list of figures, tables, diagrams and appendixes is attached.
Individual documents differ by the sequence of chapters and their names, but the presented structure can be perceived as generalised and applicable to all of them. Some strategies (e.g. for Zielona Góra or Gdańsk–Gdynia–Sopot) include a separate section devoted to cultural heritage, natural assets and tourism. Others discuss human capital and health infrastructure (Kraków), low-carbon economy (Białystok), innovation (Gdańsk–Gdynia–Sopot), education (Gdańsk–Gdynia–Sopot) and transport (Łódź) in separate subsections. Several documents also include such points as principles and procedures for project selection and identification; description of undertaken public consultations; the implementation schedule; the implementation and monitoring system; the effectiveness of the ITI Strategy; results of the Strategic Environmental Assessment; reference to the Low Carbon Economy Plan; complementary projects; and social projects complementary to the interventions under ITI.
Data on marketing and territorial branding goals planned for each FUA were retrieved from corresponding Strategies for Integrated Territorial Investments.
The conducted document analysis involved skimming (superficial examination), reading (thorough examination), and interpretation (Bowen, 2009). Results of the content analysis were examined considering the exploratory and interpretative character of the research material (Flick, 2012). The analytical procedure consisted of finding, selecting, appraising (making sense of), and synthesising data contained in documents. Then, the data (excerpts and quotations) were organised into major themes, categories and case examples (Labuschagne, 2003). In the selection and analysis of data, the research authors attempted to demonstrate objectivity (to represent the research material fairly) and sensitivity (to respond to even subtle cues of the meaning) (Bowen, 2009).
The analysis of Strategies for Integrated Territorial Investments for particular FUAs consisted of the following steps: (i) the identification of development goals for FUAs related to their marketing and branding activity (including strategic and operational goals), (ii) creating categories of development goals for FUAs related to their marketing and branding efforts.
The aims of the article were achieved by directed content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005, p. 1281). During the coding process, researchers used both codes formulated based on the existing theory as well as codes which they developed themselves, relying on the obtained results. Additional categories were created in the process of content analysis. This information enriched the existing theory of territorial marketing and branding with new issues related explicitly to FUAs. The directed content analysis allowed the coders to formulate new directions of initiatives related to the marketing activity of FUAs.
As researchers play an indispensable role in qualitative methods (Researcher-as-Instrument) (Archibald et al., 2015) and their work is related to coding, it is worth mentioning that the work of the coder was performed by the authors of the article who have experience in carrying out qualitative research projects.
Therefore, they have relevant knowledge and are also methodologically well-equipped, which was necessary to carry out the research process. The ultimate decision on the creation of the final categories was discussed among all authors of the article.
In Poland, FUAs integrate marketing components into their development strategies; however, different terms are used to describe those activities. In total, the content analysis of documents allowed to identify five main terms describing marketing-related activities: advertisement, brand, image, marketing, promotion. Each FUA develops its marketing strategies based on the current challenges posed by the environment using its material and immaterial means to solve as many problems as possible (Table 3). It can be observed that although the main marketing goals of FUAs are different, their operational goals are similar. The categories of goals assigned to them often overlap.
Strategic and operational marketing goals of the FUA development
| Bialystok | Attractiveness of investments | Support of the investors and the network of investment areas | Attractiveness for investments |
| Bydgoszcz–Toruń | Building the image of the region for various relations | Support for the process of internationalisation of enterprises | Image/brand, Relations, Support for entrepreneurship |
| Gdańsk–Gdynia–Sopot | Implementation of integrated projects responding to the needs and problems of the FUA | Promoting the region as ecological, Support for entrepreneurship, Supporting cultural events | Image/brand, Integration, Attractiveness for tourists, Attractiveness for residents, Support for entrepreneurship |
| Gorzów Wielkopolski | Creation of a positive image, Development of economic relations | Intensified economic promotion, Greater involvement of external communes | Image/brand, Relations |
| Katowice | Promotion of the FUA as an important metropolitan area | Promoting the region as pro-ecological, Promoting entrepreneurship, Equal opportunities | Strengthening the metropolitan area function, Support for entrepreneurship, Image/brand, Attractiveness for residents |
| Kielce | Development of territorial marketing instruments, Shaping the Voivodship brand | Promoting as an ecological region, Spatial integration and poly-centric structure, Openness to modern solutions, Protecting natural and cultural heritage | Image/brand, Attractiveness for investments, Attractiveness for tourists |
| Kraków | Improvement of the quality of life, Creation of the ecological image | Reinforcement of science, culture and sport, participation in metropolitan networking | Attractiveness for residents, Image/brand |
| Lublin | Improvement of the external contacts, Creating new opportunities for development | Development of external relations and metropolitan links, Strengthening cultural openness, Improving a bad image | Relations, Image/brand, Strengthening the metropolitan area function |
| Łódź | Integrated revitalisation measures in various dimensions | Increase in economic attractiveness and competitiveness | Attractiveness for investments, Integration |
| Olsztyn | Promoting the FUA outside its area | The image of the FUA as pro-ecological, Promoting social inclusion | Image/brand, Attractiveness for residents |
| Opole | Building a trans-regional cultural brand | Sustainable use of existing resources, Infrastructure preparation of investment areas, Supporting cultural events | Image/brand, Attractiveness for investments |
| Poznań | Development of an innovative economy, Improving the attractiveness of the city's space, Promoting the FUA as highly-developed, Improving the quality of life | Creation of a recognisable “Poznań Metropolis” brand, Creation of an offer for tourists, Joint economic promotion, Creating the image as pro low carbon | Image/brand, Attractiveness for investments, Attractiveness for tourists, Strengthening the metropolitan area function |
| Rzeszów | The development of the FUA's partnership in various spheres of activity | A culture-oriented image. Promoting low-carbon image, Good working and living conditions, Protecting heritage, Promoting entrepreneurship | Image/brand, Integration, Attractiveness for residents, Attractiveness for tourists, Support for entrepreneurship |
| Szczecin | Spatial and functional integration, dynamic development, Raising the standards of living | Implementation of the “Floating Garden” brand, Marketing of water tourism, Promotion of entrepreneurship and ecology, Protection of heritage, The partnership model of cooperation | Image/brand, Integration, Attractiveness for residents, Attractiveness for tourists, Support for entrepreneurship |
| Szczecin | Spatial and functional integration, dynamic development, Raising the standards of living | Implementation of the “Floating Garden” brand, Marketing of water tourism, Promotion of entrepreneurship and ecology, Protection of heritage, The partnership model of cooperation | Image/brand, Integration, Attractiveness for residents, Attractiveness for tourists, Support for entrepreneurship |
| Warszawa | Promotion of functional integration and development factors, Exploiting the potential of all territories | Promoting entrepreneurship, Support for the cultural area | Relations, Support for entrepreneurship, Integration |
| Wrocław | Development based on the improvement of innovation, competitiveness and image of the FUA | Promotion of local entrepreneurs, Improvement of communication | Attractiveness for investments, Image/brand, Support for entrepreneurship |
| Zielona Góra | Creating the brand and making it more attractive to visitors | Promotion of companies’ investments in R&D | Image/brand, Attractiveness for tourists, Support for entrepreneurship |
Kielce was the only surveyed FUA that did not provide a clear strategic marketing goal in the ITI Strategy. More information can be found on the official website of the FUA.
The content analysis of provisions related to the strategic and operational marketing objectives (which specify the former), resulted in eight categories of goals, listed in the last column of Table 3: image/brand (e.g., Gorzów Wielkopolski, Bydgoszcz–Toruń), support for entrepreneurship (e.g. Szczecin, Katowice), attractiveness for tourists (e.g. Poznań, Gdańsk–Gdynia–Sopot), quality of life (e.g. Olsztyn, Rzeszów), integration (e.g. Łódź, Warszawa), attractiveness for investments (e.g. Białystok, Kielce), relations (e.g. Bydgoszcz–Toruń, Lublin) and the metropolitan area function (Lublin, Katowice and Poznań). Image/brand can be considered the most common goal among the surveyed FUAs. Although Table 3 lists the principal distinctive features of regional marketing strategies, they also have similarities. Every metropolis aims to build a marketing strategy on regional specialities, cultural heritage and unique natural resources. Apart from the essential promotion goals, FUAs intend to increase the awareness and popularize measures aiming to solve the problems of ecological and social inclusion. Such plans reflect the European tendency to work towards increased awareness of natural environment and equality. Although for the current study, the authors classified FUAs according to their geographic position, the analysis shows that the regions have common features regardless of their location. Specific goals are unique for each area. Metropolitan areas are a particular kind of FUAs that primarily focus on creating core branding concepts common with the neighbouring local governments. Such cooperation is possible due to the extended shared history of neighbouring municipalities. In the case of metropolitan areas, the largest agglomerations have the most consistent brand concepts, e.g., Poznań FUA (Glińska et al., 2016).
According to goal categories (Table 3), almost all FUAs focus on their image or brand. On the other hand, specific objectives concern such aspects as attractiveness for investments or residents (i.e. FUA inhabitants, their social inclusion and satisfaction with the quality of life), integration, attractiveness for tourists (which also means the protection of heritage sites), support for entrepreneurship, building relations, and strengthening the metropolitan area function.
Table 4 clearly presents and summarises the frequency, at which a particular goal category appears in strategies of the listed FUAs. The table lists goal categories in descending order by the frequency of appearance.
Summary of the frequency of appearance of different goal categories
| Image/brand | 14 | Bydgoszcz-Toruń, Gdańsk-Gdynia-Sopot, Gorzów Wielkopolski, Katowice, Kielce, Kraków, Lublin, Olsztyn, Opole, Poznań, Rzeszów, Szczecin, Wrocław, Zielona Góra |
| Support for entrepreneurship | 8 | Bydgoszcz-Toruń, Gdańsk-Gdynia-Sopot, Katowice, Rzeszów, Szczecin, Warszawa, Wrocław, Zielona Góra |
| Attractiveness for investments | 6 | Białystok, Kielce, Łódź, Opole, Poznań, Wrocław |
| Attractiveness for residents | 6 | Gdańsk-Gdynia-Sopot, Katowice, Kraków, Olsztyn, Rzeszów, Szczecin |
| Attractiveness for tourists | 6 | Gdańsk-Gdynia-Sopot, Kielce, Poznań, Rzeszów, Szczecin, Zielona Góra |
| Integration | 5 | Gdańsk-Gdynia-Sopot, Łódź, Rzeszów, Szczecin, Warszawa |
| Relations | 4 | Bydgoszcz-Toruń, Gorzów Wielkopolski, Lublin, Warszawa |
| Strengthening the metropolitan area function | 3 | Katowice, Lublin, Poznań |
The most common category of goals is the image/brand (14 FUAs) followed by the support for entrepreneurship (8 FUAs). The attractiveness for investments, residents and tourists was considered significant enough by 6 FUAs to be included in strategies. The least frequent category was the strengthening the metropolitan area function (3 FUAs).
Based on the analysis of Strategies for Integrated Territorial Investments developed by 17 Polish functional urban areas that contain voivodship capitals, all of the urban areas emphasised issues related to marketing and territorial branding. This conclusion is consistent with the results of the study conducted by Raganowicz (2018). Based on the content analyses of voivodship city development strategies, Raganowicz stated that all of them considered the city brand to be an important development factor. Also, they prioritised efforts to build brand awareness and marketing activities. It should be stressed, however, that this research concerned only the activities undertaken by local governments of voivodship cities rather than entities coordinating functional urban areas.
The content analysis of provisions related to the strategic and operational objectives aimed at FUA development in terms of branding resulted in eight categories of goals. The categories define the main areas (directions) of activity undertaken by individual cities in collaboration with their functional areas. These eight categories can be divided into two types: 1) a general objective, which functions as an umbrella to all marketing/branding activities, named “image/branding” by the authors, and 2) objectives related to marketing and branding activities of FUAs and targeted at particular groups (investors, tourists, residents, local entrepreneurs). The authors named the latter “attractiveness for investors”, “attractiveness for tourists”, “attractiveness for residents”, and “support for entrepreneurship” support’. Also, some goals can be considered horizontal as they concern the focus points of FUA marketing activities and include such issues as integration, relations and the strengthening the metropolitan area function (Fig. 2). It should be stressed that these separate types of categories not only differ from each other by the degree of generality but also are connected (overlapping). However, this is a deliberate effect, which results from the theory of place branding and the observation of the branding practice applied by cities.
Fig. 2
Categories of FUA development goals related to marketing and city branding — universal and FUA-specific
The distinction of the “image/brand” category of objectives is consistent with the place branding theory, which emphasises that branding is an umbrella for all marketing processes rather than an ancillary tool, used mainly for the promotion of the city (Vermeulen, 2002). The idea of an umbrella brand, which is usually used in corporate branding, is applied in city branding as well (Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2006; Daszkiewicz & Wołosecka, 2019). In the latter case, it concerns assigning different categories of products (such as tourism, investments, housing, etc.) to one brand to create a common set of associations (Florek, 2014).
According to Florek and Janiszewska (2011), a territorial brand, which functions as an umbrella brand, targets many diverse segments of audiences, including current and potential residents, tourists, investors, and customers. The second group of branding objectives of FUAs refers to the previous statement and includes all activities aimed at improving the attractiveness of these areas for residents, tourists and investors.
The third group of objectives was distinguished due to a broader recognition of benefits that cities can derive from having a strong brand. According to Middleton (2011, p. 16), a strong brand not only improves the city's attractiveness for investments, tourists or residents but also facilitates the creation of better and more effective partnerships with other cities, institutions, public and private organisations. Besides, it may increase the political influence of the city. Based on this approach, categories of horizontal objectives were identified as “relations”, “integration” and “strengthening the metropolitan area function”.
The analysis of FUA strategies also helped to distinguish specific categories of branding objectives, which seemed typical of such territorial units. These were ‘integration’ and ‘strengthening the metropolitan area function”. “Integration” refers to the opinion by Ashworth et al. (2015, p. 4) that a strong brand not only provides strategic guidelines for the development of territorial units but is also an instrument for creating an aspirational vision of the city's future; it is a platform for cooperation between stakeholders. The category “strengthening the metropolitan area function” is important from the point of view of the necessity to overcome social barriers related to thinking and acting beyond administrative divisions. Despite the declared willingness to cooperate, the units/communities comprising the functional area may present competitive attitudes and put particular objectives above the strategic ones that may have resulted from the cooperation. Functional Urban Areas are often treated as “artificial constructs” resulting from imposed requirements related to the EU funding (Glińska et al., 2016). The distinction of those two categories as specific to the FUA brand is consistent with the opinion by Pasquinelli (2013) regarding the process of inter-territorial branding, which should cross administrative borders and consider inter-territorial collaboration. The pooling of resources and cooperation may result in a positive-sum game serving the brand of the region as well as individual place brands (Pasquinelli, 2013; Maráková & Kvasnová, 2016).
The three categories of FUA branding objectives that were selected in this publication also have a hierarchical relationship. The categories of goals related to particular target groups are included in a more detailed “image/brand” goal. Due to the horizontal nature, the remaining ones permeate marketing activities undertaken by FUAs to target specific groups and build awareness of the umbrella brand.
Modern cities are much more than just residential spaces. Since different groups of stakeholders with a variety of interests operate in the same territory, the structure of cities is becoming more sophisticated. Consequently, local governments must strive to satisfy the demands of all stakeholders groups. Due to various socio-economic reasons, cities grow and go beyond their formal borders, constructing new territorial units such as FUAs. Strategies for Integrated Territorial Investments are among key documents predetermining the directions of FUA development in Poland. They cover the most important aspects, including marketing and branding.
Topics related to FUA marketing are of great concern as the modern world places cities at the centre of power rather than states, providing the basis on which the future world order will be constructed (Khanna, 2011).
The selected content analysis as a research method allowed achieving the aim of the paper and identifying groups of goals for FUAs. In the field of marketing and branding, three groups of main goals were detected: 1) a general objective functioning as an umbrella and relating to all marketing/branding activities; 2) objectives relating to FUA marketing and branding activities targeted at specific groups, namely, investors, tourists, residents, and local entrepreneurs; and 3) goals that can be considered horizontal because they concern the focus points of FUA marketing activity and include such issues as “integration”, “relations” and “strengthening the metropolitan area function”. Most of these objectives overlap with those identified as characteristic of city marketing and branding. However, the two categories of objectives — “integration” and “strengthening the metropolitan area function” — that emerged as a result of content analysis, proved to be specific to this type of territorial units.
The conducted research is based on qualitative studies and provides a ground for the proposal of a research hypothesis, the verification of which is planned in the subsequent stages of the research.
The adaptation of the concept of city marketing and branding to the management of FUAs requires its expansion to include new aspects related to the integration of the interests of individual territorial units within FUAs and the strengthening of FUA metropolitan functions.
The significance of the study is multifaceted. The first implication comes from the fact that city branding is becoming an increasingly popular governance practice. Hence, the literature on the subject suggests an appeal that city branding can be used to stimulate urban development and growth, manage perceptions about places and formulate city identities (Ye & Björner, 2018; Eshuis & Edwards, 2012). This study and its results address this particular appeal. The results of the presented research may be useful for municipalities to estimate what aspects of marketing and branding activities are explicit enough and which of them should be elaborated further. From the perspective of academic literature on the topic, the current paper contributes to marketing and branding activities of FUAs. The second implication emerges from the gap in the literature concerning the theory of branding FUAs. Efforts to address this topic are essential for the functioning of modern cities and its derivatives which cannot be confined within their borders as an individual place may need to belong to a “larger location” for place branding purposes (Moilanen & Rainisto, 2009). The findings of the presented research contribute to the investigated field. The results may be useful for making associations of units managing FUAs within the largest cities in Poland.
The key limitation of the paper is its focus on one type of documents, namely, Strategies for Integrated Territorial Investments of Polish FUAs. The decision can be explained by the uniqueness of such bodies. In the opinion of the authors, the results of the research presented in this paper present further research opportunities. The content analysis resulted in better knowledge about specific characteristics of marketing and branding activities of FUAs. This information will help to prepare a better script for in-depth interviews with representatives of FUA managers. Another limitation is related to the specificity of the method, which is the analysis of document contents. One should remember that documents are developed for a purpose other than the research goal; they are created independently of a research agenda (Bowen, 2009). The last limitation of this study is associated with a subjective evaluation of the text by the coder. The authors attempted to minimize this impact with the help of certain, earlier accepted coding procedures. However, these are rather potential flaws than major disadvantages. Given its efficiency and cost-effectiveness, the document analysis offers advantages that clearly outweigh its limitations (Bowen, 2009).