A prActiced nAnobiotechnology ApproAch with the scope of nutrition, food sAfety, dietetics, gAstronomy, And sustAinAbility for humAns by fish meAt And fish products preservAtion – A review

fish is a unique source for human consumption and also the food industry. in this sense, different nanobiotechnology-based applications especially have been used for providing food safety, improving the taste and preferences of fish meat, keeping the nutritional components in fish meat for human consumption, and eliminating nutritional losses with cooking. Nanofibers, nanoparticles, nanoliposomes, and nanoemulsions are good candidates for preserving fish meat from microbial spoilage and oxidative deterioration. Nanoliposomes particularly fabricated with seaweeds have delayed (free fatty acid, peroxide value, etc.) the rapid undesired formation in fish meat or fish oil. Besides nanoliposome, being revealed that especially nanoparticles (from biopolymer) and nanoemulsions mostly obtained from citrus oils effectively delay the rapid oxidation in fish meat. Also with these applications, the nutritional quality of processed products has been protected. In this regard, it is reported that nanofiber applications integrated with sous-vide cooking or baking of fish meat like salmon meat samples effectively can protect against nutritional losses in fish meat. Probiotic bacteria such as L. rhamnosus and L. reuteri which are encapsulated in nanobiotechnology-based material can be successfully used both to preserve the meat and to improve the functional properties of raw or processed/cooked fish meat. These nanobiotechnological approaches improve food safety by limiting microbiological spoilage such as mesophilic and psychrophilic for fish meat samples. The mentioned nanopreservation approaches provide a better solution as compared with conventional methods with fewer materials usage in the food industry. Some studies also support that this is a cost-effective method, especially in terms of food additive usage in foods. Above all, these mentioned processes related to food nanobiotechnology can improve food safety, and limit nutritional losses due to cooking procedures, so this review suggests that the nanobiotechnology-based approaches can be a guiding role for further applications in the food industry.

Food is a unique source for humankind to sustain a healthy and longer life.In this regard, the countries, defined as undeveloped or kindly determined as developing, can encounter more dearth.Also, in some African countries people, unfortunately, can have a shorter life circle because of the fact that adequate healthy, nutritional foods and also water is not accessible.In this respect, various food preservation methods are implemented to obtain healthy food for a long time.To illustrate, food additives such as nitrite, sulfite, sorbate, or some naturalbased food additives defined as non-cost-effective like nisin are widely used (Behnam et al., 2015;Bonerba et al., 2013).In addition to food additives, food irradiation technology is used to prolong the shelf life of foods such as spices, meat, and meat products (Ceylan and Özoğul, 2019).As a consumer, in local or international sales places, it could be observed that different food packaging applications like modified atmospheric packaging (MAP) or vacuum packaging (VP) can limit the potential contamination risk in foods (Bouletis et al., 2017), especially in undeveloped countries.
There are different kinds of foods all over the world, but meat and meat products (red meat, chicken meat, and fish meat) are widely consumed due to the fact that they consist of valuable and essential nutrients for human health.In this respect, shrimp, cuttlefish, octopus, and calamari, besides different kinds of fish species, include essential amino acids (EAA) and important fatty acids (FA) with excluding higher carbohydrates value as compared to other types of meat products (Ünal Şengör et al., 2018;Ceylan and Ünal, 2019;Šimat et al., 2020).In addition to EAA and FA, seafood is also rich in vitamins, minerals, and some special structures like dopamine having an important role in brain functions defined as motivation, dreaming, sleeping mood, punishment, learning, attention, and memory as stated by Pace-Schott (2010) and Perogamvros et al. (2013).As could be seen from the published studies, these properties of seafood mentioned above are not only crucial for the fisheries industry but also nutritional and dietetic which can directly affect human health.In this regard, especially the study based on vitamins in fish meat takes a great deal of attention.
Cooking methods applied for seafood might play an important role in vitamin losses; recently published studies also reported this fact.Vitamins (B 1 , B 2 , and B 3 ) amount of all samples were decreased significantly depending on cooking methods such as grilling and baking.Mentioned vitamins were found to be more stable in fish samples grilled as stated by Çatak et al. (2022).Actually, these kinds of studies revealed the importance of seafood gastronomy applications besides the significance of nutrition and dietetics.
As seen from the studies given above, seafood consumption is very important for the human diet.On the other hand, seafood is more perishable as compared to other types of meat products like red meat because of mainly the weak connective tissue, so the food preservation methods mentioned at the beginning of the introduction part are essential for providing food safety.Especially, total mesophilic (TMAB) and psychrophilic bacteria (TPB) growth in raw seafood samples is important along with some major and emerging microorganisms (Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Aeromonas hydrophila and so on) (Sheng and Wang, 2021).Microorganisms in fish are commonly present on surfaces (skin and gills), besides the digestive tract and internal organs like the kidney and liver.So, contact materials used in kitchens such as knives, plates, etc can be easily contaminated due to fish's internal organs.In this sense, hygienic procedures in the industry and kitchen applications at home are gaining much more importance to eliminate the rapid microbial spoilage on the surface materials used in the area in which fish is processed.So, to limit microbial spoilage in fish meat and the surfaces mentioned, promising approaches are recently being tried.With the increase in microbial spoilage or contamination, chemical, sensory and physical deterioration in fish meat samples can be observed as well.The consumers can feel some changes in its sensorial organs like eyes and tongue.For example, depending on oxidation in fish fillets, especially fatty ones, a yellowish color that is not desired by the consumers could be determined on the surface of fish meat while off-odor in fish meat samples is observed.Also, according to many published studies, there is already a significant correlation between the oxidation parameter, b* value, and sensory parameters (Ünal Şengör et al., 2019, 2020;Çetinkaya and Ceylan, 2019).They are merely a few samples related to the spoilage of fish meat samples after harvesting.To delay the all-mentioned spoilage of fish meat, novel strategies, promising technologies, and emerging approaches have been studied in the food industry and among the scientists who work on fish quality.With the micro-processing approaches to fish meat quality (Kuley et al., 2021), in the last decade, nanotechnology-based applications have been taking a great deal of attention to increase the shelf life and keep the quality of fish meat.Thus, nanoemulsion, nanoparticle, nanoliposome, and nanofiber with different nanoencapsulated bioactive materials have been used to limit microbiological spoilage, chemical deterioration like oxidation, rapid pH increase, and sensory and physical deterioration in raw, cooked fish samples.Besides food safety, nanotechnology applications have been able to be used to eliminate nutritional losses in cooked, cold stored, and raw fish meat samples (Ceylan et al., 2020 d).This is also so important for nutrition, dietetics, and gastronomy applications.
The present study aimed to reveal the novel approaches presented with nanobiotechnology applications for fish meat samples cooked, raw, or stored at cold storage conditions.The findings in this review study could be evaluated in the food industry, nutrition, and dietetics, in many gastronomy applications while these mentioned technologies could be used to avoid the dearth and nutritional losses and to improve food safety.

nanoemulsions
A lipid-based carrier system called a nanoemulsion is made up of an oil, a co-surfactant, and a surfactant (Feng et al., 2020).Nanoemulsions are colloidal delivery methods with droplet sizes less than 500 nm; their smaller size offers more surface area, which enhances the interaction of encapsulated bioactive chemicals with emulsifierbased suspensions and increases the oxidation phenomena (Ashaolu, 2021;Li et al., 2020;Shehzad et al., 2021).In nanoemulsion fabrication, several production methods have been used.The most widely utilized low-and highenergy techniques for producing nanoemulsions include ultrasonication, emulsion inversion point, high-pressure homogenization, phase-inversion temperature, solvent displacement, spontaneous emulsification, high-shear mixing, and bubble bursting (Azmi et al., 2019;Ekin et al., 2021;Meral et al., 2022;Mohammadi et al., 2016;O'Sullivan et al., 2018).
Nanoemulsions have superior properties which provide many important advantages in food applications compared to micro and macro emulsions.Due to their excellent optical clarity, resistance to droplet aggregation, and gravity separation, they are commonly used as delivery methods.Traditional emulsions are optically turbid because the size of the droplets is similar to the wavelength of light, scattering the incident light and giving the impression of being opaque.But, in nanoemulsions, the size of the particle is lower than the wavelength of light, resulting in reflected light, and a transparent appearance.Therefore nanoemulsions can be easily added to the formulation of colored drinks, syrups, and foods without changing their color or other quality parameters (Donsì et al., 2011;Donsì and Ferrari, 2016).According to Pinelli et al. (2021), the meat product's antioxidant properties were improved by the essential oil and nanoemulsion combinations, while the product's other technological properties remained unaltered.Similarly, Radi et al. (2018) demonstrated that edible coatings made from orange peel-essential oil-loaded nanoemulsion might increase orange slices' shelf life without negatively affecting their sensory properties.This property is one of the most important advantages obtained with the nanoemulsion application.Additionally, they help with the regulat-ed release of flavorings in food.Bioactive substances can be encapsulated in nanoemulsions, which improves their solubility, controlled release and intestine absorption, and cell absorption (McClements, 2012;Salvia-Trujillo et al., 2015).Pinelli et al. (2021) found that individual active components were less effective than nanoemulsions at reducing the vegetative cells of microorganisms.A study conducted by Radi et al. (2018) found that in contrast to the other samples, which contained microemulsion and pure versions of essential oils, during the storage period, the orange slices had superior bacterial and fungal inactivation thanks to the nanoemulsion pectin-based coatings with 1% essential oil.Feng et al. (2020) used tocopherol in nano and coarse emulsion forms in fish sausages.Adding tocopherol to an oil-in-water nanoemulsion increased its chemical stability and boosted its bioavailability and antioxidant effects.In this study, it was concluded that tocopherol nanoemulsions' superior antioxidant activity in fish sausages could be explained by their smaller particle size, even dispersion, and stability.
The nanoemulsions that contain flavoring and coloring components, antioxidants, enzymes, and antimicrobials agents to extend their shelf life, and reduce fat content can be used in fish fillets (Ceylan et al., 2020 b, c;Meral et al., 2019).Additionally, nanoemulsion coatings can lessen food oxidation, limit moisture loss, and prevent moisture and gas exchange (Aswathanarayan and Vittal, 2019).They are becoming more and more common for this use because of their simplicity in handling and production, great physical stability, and favorable oral bioavailability.The supplement, food, and pharmaceutical industries are actively developing nanoemulsion-based delivery methods to encapsulate, protect, and control the release of a variety of hydrophobic bioactive compounds.Lipid oxidation often takes place around the oilwater interface in emulsions due to interactions between hydrophilic pro-oxidants from the aqueous phase and hydrophobic lipid substrates from the oil phase.Nanostructured delivery assemblies, such as nanoemulsions, are helpful and effective approaches that can protect, transport, and solve the insolubility problems of bioactive (Shehzad et al., 2021).
There are many nutritional and physiological advantages to using fish oil.Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DH) are two very potent polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) found in fish oil (DHA) (Li et al., 2020).In addition to being essential nutrients for normal growth and development, PUFAs may also play a critical role in the prevention and treatment of conditions like diabetes mellitus, coronary artery disease, arthritis, hypertension, some types of cancer, and autoimmune disorders.The primary PUFAs present in fish oils are DHA, EPA, eicosatetraenoic acid (ETA), and α-linolenic acid.However, these PUFAs have a short shelf life because of their great vulnerability to oxidation and degradation (García-Márquez et al., 2017).A useful carrier for encapsulated nutraceuticals is a nanoemulsion (Li et al., 2020).PUFAs can be added as bulk oils, oil-in-water emulsions (O/W), or powders to enhance a variety of functional foods (García-Márquez et al., 2017).Currently, due to fish oil's poor solubility in most dietary systems and oxidative instability, many researchers have developed fish oil-loaded nanoemulsions (Li et al., 2020).
Studies have shown that oxidative stability increases with the conversion of fish oil into nanoemulsion form.Fish oil nanoemulsions with soybean protein isolatephosphatidylcholine were studied by Li et al. (2020) to see how different components affected the stability of the emulsions (SPI-PC).Their findings indicate that SPI-PC nanoemulsions are a novel class of nanoemulsion systems for limiting oxidation and enhancing the digestibility of fish oil.Studies have also emphasized that carrier type, oil concentration, and fabrication methods are important in the production of fish oil-loaded nanoemulsions.Walker et al. (2017) stated that choosing a suitable carrier oil type and concentration can result in the creation of fish oil-loaded nanoemulsions that are both chemically and physically stable.In addition, the size of the nanoemulsion affects the bioavailability of fish oil.It may be possible to increase their absorption in the digestive tract by using fish oil-loaded nanoemulsions having about 200 nm particle size (García-Márquez et al., 2017).Consequently, the encapsulation strategy, which is based on fish oil nanoemulsions encapsulating DHA and EPA, can be a successful method for enhancing food matrices.Nanoemulsions can enhance the bioaccessibility/ bioavailability of lipophilic bioactive and their controlled delivery in aqueous suspensions (Shehzad et al., 2021).
Additionally, to maintain the microbiological and oxidative stability of fish meat, which has a quick deterioration characteristic, nanoemulsions containing diverse antibacterial components are used.In a study, Meral et al. (2019) introduced thyme essential oil to the water phase that had been made using maltodextrin and Tween 20.Then, while the fish was maintained in the refrigerator, the TMAB count was examined after treating 10 g of skinless trout fillets with 100 µL of the created nanoemulsion.The samples treated with the thyme essential oil-loaded nanoemulsion had a shelf life that was 3 days longer than the samples in the control group.In 100 µL of nanoemulsion, 8.3 µL of thyme essential oil was found to be present.In a different study, Ceylan et al. (2020 a) coated 150 g of mackerel fillets with 5 mL of a nanoemulsion made of wheat germ oil before cooking the fillets and analyzing the cooked fish samples for the presence of free fatty acids (FFA) and peroxide (PV).The conjugated diene, triene, and thiobarbituric acid (TBA, CD, and CT) calculations were also performed.Compared to the control group, wheat germ oil-loaded nanoemulsions prevented an increase in TBA, FFA, PV, CD, and CT levels.It was discovered that a 5 mL nanoemulsion contained 0.815 mL of wheat germ oil.Özogul et al. (2020) examined the antibacterial effects of nanoemulsions based on thyme essential oil and its purified form on food-borne pathogens (S. paratyphi A, K. pneumonia, S. aureus, and E. faecalis) and fish spoilage bacteria (S. liquefaciens, P. luteola, V. vulnificus E. faecalis, and P. damselae).The outcomes demonstrated that thymebased nanoemulsions were more effective against foodborne microorganisms.Following nanoemulsion treatments, damage to bacterial cell membranes was noticed.The antibacterial activity of thyme oil was enhanced with its conversion into a nanoemulsion, and its nanoform can be employed as a substitute antimicrobial agent in prepared or packed fish or food products.
Rainbow trout fillets were stored at 4°C in a refrigerator when Durmus (2020) examined the antioxidant and antibacterial effects of nanoemulsions of orange, grapefruit, mandarin, and lemon essential oils.In comparison to the control group, the application of citrus essential oil-based nanoemulsions reduced the values of biochemical parameters and inhibited bacterial growth.All citrus essential oils, especially mandarin and grapefruit, can be suggested for use in the preparation of nanoemulsions for the preservation of rainbow trout fillets.The effectiveness of nanoemulsification for enhancing the effectiveness of chitosan-Ferulago angulata essential oil coating (CH-EO) in increasing the shelf life of rainbow trout fillets during 16 days of storage at 4°C was studied by Shokri et al. (2020).The effectiveness of CH + EO in preventing the growth of lipid peroxidation in fish fillets was also enhanced by nanoemulsification.Samples treated with CH-EO nanoemulsion had considerably improved texture, color, and overall acceptability than untreated samples.The findings point to nanoemulsification as a possible strategy to improve the effectiveness of the active coating.The impact of three concentrations of edible coarse/nanoemulsions of alginate as coating containing Zataria multiflora Boiss essential oil (ZEO) on the microbiological quality of fish fillets stored for 16 days at 4°C was examined by Khanzadi et al. (2020).Compared to the control, all treatments dramatically reduced microbial growth.Accordingly, it can be inferred that coating fish fillets with nanoemulsions was more efficient than coating them with coarse emulsions in extending their shelf life.It also demonstrated a faster and stronger inhibition of microbial flora during storage than coating fish fillets with coarse emulsions.
With a sonication approach, curcumin and rosemary oil nanoemulsions (CUR and RON) with average diameters of 184.3 nm and 158.3 nm were successfully created by Ceylan et al. (2020 b).The agar diffusion method was used to assess the effectiveness of nanoemulsions against P. aeruginosa, S. typhimurium, and E. coli.The total mesophilic bacterial growth (TMAB) in fish fillets treated with RON and CUR nanoemulsions was also examined.Fish fillets treated with RON and CUR had lower total psychrophilic bacterial counts (TPB) than control group samples, by 26% and 17%, respectively.While TMAB growth was effectively reduced in fish fillets treated with RON during the analysis period, TMAB count (7.42 log CFU/g for control) was reduced in fish fillets treated with CUR (6.53 log CFU/g for samples).
As could be seen in the given studies mentioned above related to the use of nanoemulsions on especially fish meat quality and fish oil, nanoemulsion application demonstrated that nanoemulsions are a proper candidate for those looking for the natural and cheaper antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds.nanoparticles Nanoparticles obtained from different bioactive or different kinds of materials could be used to provide food safety for fish meat samples.A study based on rosmarinic acid-loaded nanoparticles limited rapid oxidation in minced salmon samples stored at 4°C.Also, DPPH values of minced fish treated with rosmarinic acid-loaded nanoparticles were found higher as compared with control group samples.Control samples were defined as unfit for human consumption in a short time following the initial storage period, and the sensory score treated with rosmarinic acid-loaded nanoparticles was determined as still acceptable for 9 days as stated by Ceylan et al. (2022 a).Nanoparticles are used for keeping the sensory quality and limitation of microbiological spoilage besides enhancement of rheological properties in fish meat.For example, the use of chitosan nanoparticles as a coating material for fish fingers decreased bacterial spoilage and increased the shelf life (Abdou et al., 2012).Chitosan nanoparticleloaded with fennel essential oils integrated with modified atmosphere packaging decreased peroxide value, TVBN, and TBA in fish (Huso huso) fillets compared with control group samples for 18 days.Besides chemical limitations, mesophilic, psychotropic, pseudomonas, and lactic acid bacteria growth in fish fillets coated with nanoparticles was successfully delayed.The mentioned nanotreatment also provided better sensory quality during the shelf life.This study also noted that MAP, a conventional food preservation method, could be utilized with nanoparticle application on fish meat samples (Maghami et al., 2019).Silver nanoparticles integrated with packaging material inhibited the growth of different bacterial counts such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus and increased and prolonged storage period (at 4°C) (Elsharawy, 2018).In this respect, it has already been revealed that Ag nanoparticles could display antimicrobial properties with a large surface area that offers a better connection with microorganisms (Rai et al., 2009).As was seen, the use of rosmarinic acid, chitosan, and silver nanoparticles on fish meat and fish products was found to be effective for the improvement of food safety.When the published studies were investigated, different size of nanoparticles could be used.To illustrate, Ceylan (2018) reported that the nanoparticles fabricated with biopolymer-based material (chitosan) having a nanosize (average zeta size: 397.93 nm, the maximum size: <600 nm according to scanning electron microscopy) limited the rapid microbial spoilage on the fish ball.As could be seen in the studies mentioned above, nanoparticles could be effectively used to provide food safety in fish meat samples processed or raw stored cold.

Nanofibers
Nanofibers are produced from the dissolution of a (bio)-polymer or natural substance using a reasonable solvent system.In another word, the use of nanofiber obtained from different materials which could be defined as food-grade is taking a great deal of attention among scientists and food makers (Woon-Fong Leung, 2022;Ceylan, 2019).Loading of thymol and liquid smoke into chitosan nanofibers (average diameter: 72 to 132 nm) was successfully applied to coat fish fillets.This nanofiber application delayed the rapid growth of total mesophilic aerobic bacteria (TMAB), psychrophilic bacteria (TPB) and yeast and mold (TYM) during cold storage at 6±1°C.The obtained nanofibers were defined as smooth, beadles, ultrafine, cylindrical and biopolymeric structures, which could be used as a nanofiber coating material (Figures 1 and 2).In this respect, microbiological stability tests demonstrated that the nanofibers exhibited almost 60% TMAB limitation as described by Ceylan et al. (2018 d).Chitosan nanoparticle integrated with poly(vinyl alcohol) nanofibers (0.02-g) with 397.93 nm diameter limited the total psychrophilic bacteria (TPB) growth in fish balls (up to 13%) during 5-day cold storage (Ceylan, 2018).In another study, it was revealed that chitosan nanofibers and liquid smoke-loaded electrospun chitosan nanofibers exhibited 40-50% microbiological limitation in the fish fillets stored at 4°C (Ceylan et al., 2017).As could be seen from the studies given above, nanofibers could be combined with other nanostructures showing an antibacterial effect on fish meat.In addition to the unique usage of nanofibers and their combination with other active materials, the effect of nanofibers on fish fillets within packaging materials was also observed.Thus, the combination effect of nisin (a kind of bacteriocin)-loaded poly(vinyl alcohol)-based nanofibers (150.88 nm) along with polyethylene (PE) packs effectively limited TMAB growth from 5.03 to 3.52 log CFU/g) and lactic acid bacteria growth (3.22 to 2.02 log CFU/g) in fish fillets.Also, this treatment provided better sensory quality than the fish samples with PE.The whiteness value of the fish fillets treated with nanofibers was more stable during the analysis period (Oner et al., 2021).Electrospun grape seed oil-loaded nanofibers (414.8 nm; encapsulation efficiency 92.4%) retarded TMAB growth <1.5 log/CFU.Also, this treatment delayed rapid total yeast and mold growth in fish meat samples (20%).As is known, along with the importance of microbiological spoilage in fish meat, the oxidative deterioration could play a key role to define the quality of fish meat.In this respect, the same study revealed that while TBA value in control samples was found between 1.38 and 2.06 mg MDA/kg the maximum value was determined as 1.65 mg MDA/kg in fish meat coated with electrospun grape seed oil-loaded nanofibers (Ceylan et al., 2021 a).For consumers and food manufacturers, particularly, microbial quality is defined as a unique parameter to prove food safety.On the other hand, textural properties in foods like meat are highly important for the manufacturer to increase the sales rate and consumer preferences as well.Novel materials are also studied in terms of textural effects on fish meat.So, the use of nanofibers (172 nm) for fish meat provided higher hardness stability (the change: 42%) as compared to the control group samples (the decline: 68%) in the samples stored at 4°C.Also, the coefficient correlation analysis between microbiological and textural properties was determined as stated by Ceylan et al. (2020 a).The pH value of fish meat could decrease depending on converting from glycogen to lactic acid after death.A study based on nanofibers (Ceylan et al., 2018 c) revealed that the initial pH value in raw fish meat was 6.25.An increase in pH values, from 6.25 to 6.84 and 6.55 at the end of the 11th day for control samples and the fish fillets treated with nanofibers, was defined, respectively.A review study recently published also noted that nanopreservation applications like nanofiber can provide better enzymatic, microbial and physicochemical parameters such as total volatile basic nitrogen, thiobarbituric acid, peroxide value, free fatty acid, and pH besides the shelf life extension of aquatic products (Qiu et al., 2022;Çiçek and Özoğul, 2022).
There is no doubt that the most important issue for consumers and food producers is food safety.However, recently, enhancement and keeping nutritional composi-tion and the technologies aiming at limiting nutritional losses are taking attention.It was observed that nanofiber treatment for fish meat could support the issue mentioned above.Lactobacillus rhamnosus-loaded PVA and sodium alginate-based nanofibers and also PVA and sodium alginate (C 6 H 7 O 6 Na)-based nanofibers (60.09 nm ≤ average diameter ≤ 522.1 nm) provided the stability of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in fish fillets.The stability of MUFAs like oleic acid in fish fillets coated with nanofibers was provided as compared with non-treated samples.Polyene index and C16:0, C18:0, and C14:0 values of the fish meat samples coated with nanofibers were determined as more stable.The decrease in ω-3:ω-6 of fish fillets depending on the increase of time was successfully limited.Also, loading Lactobacillus rhamnosus to nanofibers provided a higher atherogenic and thrombogenic index, which could be associated with the elimination of critical diseases (Ceylan et al., 2018 a).In another study related to vitamin stability in fish meat, thymolloaded chitosan-based nanofibers (98.12 nm and 135.94 nm) provided higher thiamin stability in fish meat samples.Thiamine loss in fish meat coated with nanofibers was merely 7% while it was found 39% in non-coated fish meat samples stored for 11 days.Besides thiamin, sharp changes in nicotinamide acid, pyridoxal, pyridoxine, and pyridoxamine contents were determined in uncoated fish meat samples.On the other hand, slight changes in vitamins were observed in fish meat samples treated with nanofibers.In this sense, the study revealed that nanofibers application was evaluated as a promising technique to keep the B vitamin stability determined as an unstable complex (Ceylan et al., 2018 e).The thiamine levels of raw uncoated salmon meat samples were decreased (68 to 62 µg/100 g).On the contrary, thiamine contents were found in the samples treated with nanofibers in the range of 75 to 78 µg/100 g.In addition, the bioaccessibility of salmon samples was increased from 79 to 94% using nanofiber application according to the methodology as described by Yaman et al. (2022).
Nanofibers have also started to be used in different cooking processes which can serve gastronomy defined as the art or science of cooking (Ceylan et al., 2022 a, b;Seyitoğlu, 2019).Also, fish species are the most unique part of gastronomy applications, especially the use of some endemic species in gastronomy applications is taking attention (Ocak and Ceylan, 2021).Gastronomy can be determined in the scope of the economic facility, so novel approaches consisting of nanofibers and fish meat applications are becoming important.As is known, some widely used cooking techniques like sous-vide cooking and baking in gastronomy applications could be improved using nanofibers.To illustrate, salmon meat samples treated with nanofibers (387.1 to 720 nm) obtained from black seed oil or black seed oil combined with curcumin were cooked at 70°C for 20 min using the sous-vide technique.Sensory preferences in terms of odor and flavor scores of salmon meat samples were determined as higher than control fish meat samples (Ceylan et al., 2022 a, b).Yaman et al. (2022) reported that before the cooking process at 70°C with the sous-vide technique, nanofiber coating for salmon meat samples could be effectively used.As compared to the other application on nanofibers, there is so limited study based on the potential effect of nanofibers on cooked fish meat samples.In this sense, the effect of nanofiber treatments combined with different cooking techniques on fish fillets should be revealed with further studies.The effect of nanofibers on fish meat can be defined as a barrier system against O 2 , H 2 O and CO 2 .So, quality parameters related directly to food safety is provided using nanofibers.nanoliposomes Fish oil, crustacean oil, and cephalopod oil are the main marine oils.The abundance of oils in seafood, which comprise long-chain-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), EPA, and DHA, is directly related to the healthpromoting properties of seafood.A daily intake of EPA and DHA of up to 400 to 500 mg was recommended by the American Heart Association for improving cardiac health.Other advantages of consuming EPA and DHA include infant brain and retinal development, anticancer and anti-inflammatory activities.Due to their high proportion of PUFA and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), marine oils have a significant vulnerability to oxidation, which is one of their main drawbacks.Fish oil encapsulation and utilization issues in fortified meals have been thoroughly researched (Ajeeshkumar et al., 2021).In the context of microencapsulation systems, the protection of sensitive nutraceutical chemicals against degradation and loss of activity has received substantial study.However, a crucial aspect that may be accomplished considerably more effectively by using nanoencapsulation technology is to provide targeted controlled release.The amount of substance or bioactive agents needed to achieve a certain effect when encapsulated is significantly less than the amount needed when unencapsulated as a result of better stability and targeting.This is especially helpful when working with pricey foods and nutraceutical ingredients.A targeted and timely release increases the bioactive substance's potency, expands the variety of applications for food additives, and assures the right dosage, all of which increase the product's cost-effectiveness.One of the most promising encapsulation techniques used in the rapidly expanding field of nanotechnology is the use of lipid and/or phospholipid-based carrier systems.They consist of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nano-structured lipid carriers, cochleates, lipidic nanoemulsions, liposomes, nanoliposomes, and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) (Khorasani et al., 2018).One of the most current methods of nanoencapsulation is nanoliposome technology (Ghorbanzade et al., 2017).As a nanocarrier system, nanoliposomes have been employed to increase the bioactive compounds' bioavailability and stabilize them against a variety of environmental and chemical changes (Rasti et al., 2017).
The hydration of surfactants like phospholipids results in the formation of spherical vesicles known as nanoliposomes.A bilayer membrane is created by the hydrophobic tail joining with other phospholipid molecules.A liposome is a versatile transporter that can carry both hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances concurrently (within a vesicle or a bilayer membrane).Nanoliposomes have a greater surface area than liposomes, are more solubilizing, target chemicals that are contained, and offer superior control over the release of those compounds The liposome has diverse particle sizes ranging from nanometers to micrometers and looks to be spherical.To preserve stability, regulate release, and increase the bioavailability of target chemicals, nanoliposome technology is more sophisticated and effective.The remarkable capacity of liposomes to accommodate and uphold the stability of chemicals that are encapsulated is one of its key benefits (Pouryousef et al., 2022;Rasti et al., 2017;Zarrabi et al., 2020).
Nanoliposomes are applied to seafood in two different ways, according to research that has been conducted to date.In one of these ways, nanoliposomes containing fish oil or omega 3-6 fatty acids derived from fish are produced.This ensures that the fish oil is shielded from environmental elements including oxidation, heat, and pH.Of course, there are many encapsulation methods used to encapsulate fish oil.For this purpose; numerous studies by researchers have examined the various approaches to encapsulating fish oil, but there are still certain problems that need to be resolved.Spray drying has been frequently used in the encapsulation of fish (Ghorbanzade et al., 2017).However, the high temperatures utilized during the drying process contribute to the oxidation of oils, which is a drawback of current spraydrying-based fish oil encapsulating techniques.Nanoliposome encapsulation may be a way to overcome these problems (Ghorbanzade et al., 2017;Ojagh and Hasani, 2018).When we look at the studies reporting that oxidation is limited, it has been revealed that nanoliposomal fish oils are better protected against oxidation according to the tests, which is a sign of oxidation.For example, Ghorbanzade et al. (2017) encapsulated fish oil in nanoliposome form with 99.2% encapsulation efficiency, and they used nano form of fish oil in the yogurt.The peroxide value (PV) of oil extracted from samples containing fish oil that had not been encapsulated was 0.92 (meq/kg) on day one and rose to 1.61 (meq/kg) on day 21 while the PV of yogurt samples containing fish oil that had been nanoencapsulated remained constant (PV=0.6)throughout the storage period of 21 days.It is clear that nanoencapsulation effectively shielded unsaturated fatty acids from damaging elements like oxidation.Ojagh and Hasani (2018) conducted a different study to investigate the effects of adding 0% (control) and 5% (w/w) nanoencapsulated fish oil on the technical and sensory quality of fortified bread.They did this by creating nanoencapsulated fish oil in nanoliposomes.All samples displayed mild levels of oxidation on the first day, ranging from 0.77 to 0.82 meq peroxide/kg oil.After the 25-day storage period, the findings indicated that PV rose in both samples during refrigeration storage but the increase was lower in nanoliposomes fish oil.This quantity was 3.66 meq peroxide/kg oil in free fish oil and 1.6 meq peroxide/kg oil in nanoliposomes, respectively.Nanoencapsulating fish oil in nanoliposomes protected unsaturated fatty acids from oxidation when compared to control samples.
In another study, to prevent oxidation during storage, shrimp oil, a rich source of n-3 fatty acids and astaxanthin, was converted into nanoliposomes utilizing ultrasonication (US) and microfluidization (MF) procedures.Up until week 4, there was a significant increase in PV of unencapsulated shrimp oil compared to nanoliposomes.The highest TBARS were found in unencapsulated shrimp oil, and they sharply increased during storage.At every storage duration evaluated, the US nanoliposome had the lowest TBARS value.Nanoliposomes also masked the strong fishy smell of the oil.Overall, shrimp oil encapsulation in nanoliposomes showed promise for preserving shrimp oil quality, and liposomes might be employed to supplement foods with n-3 fatty acids or astaxanthin (Gulzar and Benjakul, 2020).Hosseini et al. (2021) created surface-decorated nanoliposomes (SDNLs) loaded with ω-3 PUFA obtained from fish oil concentrations.While the PV levels of ω-3 PUFAs concentrate-loaded SDNLs were only 0.3 meq of O 2 /kg oil, the PV levels of pure ω-3 PUFAs concentrates varied between 0.35 and 1.36 meq of O 2 /kg oil after 16 days.After being trapped in SDNLs, the physicochemical stability of ω-3 PUFA concentrates was significantly improved.Mousavipour et al. (2021) investigated the impact of nanoliposomes on the oxidation parameter of fish oil.According to their results, all samples had initial PV values between 8.0 and 9.3 meq O 2 /kg fish oil stored at 30°C.On the other hand, based on the lengthening of the storage duration, statistical differences between the groups were identified.In comparison to the other groups, the nanoliposome-treated fish oil samples had the smallest increase (shift from 8.2 to 12.0 meqO 2 /kg oil) throughout 42 days of storage.The p-anisidine value of the control fish oil samples without nanoliposome form significantly increased, rising to 22.8 from 8.8 by the end of the 42nd day.However, the rise was less in the fish oil samples combined with nanoliposomes (NS, NP, and NC).
As mentioned above, there are two different manners of using nanoliposomes for seafood.In addition to nanoencapsulation of fish oil and fish oil-derived bioactive components, nanoliposomes are also used to extend the shelf life of fish and fish oil.As is known, fresh fish are a highly perishable product that is vulnerable to postharvest losses because it has a nearly neutral pH, high nutritional contents, high water activity, and the presence of autolytic enzymes (Homayounpour et al., 2020).Additionally, marine items may include diseases or infections that are transmitted through food, which highlights the importance of strictly controlling its bacteriological features.As a result, a wide range of preservation techniques has been successfully tested to postpone seafood rotting while maintaining its nutritional content and ensuring its safety.These techniques include the use of proper packing, chemical glazing, antibacterial and antioxidant inclusion, and appropriate packaging (Javadian et al., 2017).Currently, nanomaterials have been used to protect fishery products.For example, Homayounpour et al. (2020) used Cuminum cyminum L. encapsulated in nanoliposome on sardine fish quality features.Cumin significantly decreased thiobarbituric acid, total volatile basic nitrogen, peroxide value, and pH.Cumin extract coatings, particularly those in the form of nanoliposomes, had an inhibitory effect on both lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and total viable counts (TVC).Similarly, during 15 days of cold storage (4±1°C), the effects of liposomal encapsulated and unencapsulated thyme extract (TE) (0.3 and 0.5% w/w) on the quality of minced silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys moltrix) were investigated by Javadian et al. (2017).The samples were examined using chemical (peroxide value and total volatile nitrogen) and microbiological (total viable count, psychrotrophic count) analyses.Compared to the control and the samples containing unencapsulated extract, encapsulated thyme could also prevent the growth of mesophilic and psychrotrophic bacteria in the samples during the storage period.Additionally, from day 9 until the end of the storage period, 0.5% encapsulated TE lowered the population of E. coli O157:H7 below the permitted limit.The findings indicate that liposomal encapsulation may be able to increase antibacterial activity while reducing required TE concentrations in minced fish.Pouryousef et al. (2022) determined how inoculated bacteria, such as Listeria monocytogenes, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and Staphylococcus aureus, will react to nisin and Mentha pulegium essential oil (EO) in free and nanoliposome forms.For EO and nisin, the nanoliposomes typically generated had sizes between 138 and 161 nm.For EO and nisin, encapsulation efficiency was calculated as 48.95-74.02%and 50.1-71.43,respectively.The stability of minced fish samples during storage is most strongly influenced by the antibacterial activity of nisin and EO in nanoliposome form as compared to free form.Based on the results, it is feasible to suggest that Mentha pulegium L. EO in nanoliposome form be employed as an appropriate preserving method in the fishery industry.
As can be seen, seafood and marine-derived bioactive components can be protected with nanoliposomes.Of the 179 million tons of fish produced in 2018, approximately 156 million tonnes were used for direct human consumption, leaving the remaining 12 percent (or around 22 million tons) to be used for non-food purposes.It is estimated that fisheries and aquaculture lose or waste 35% of their annual total yield.Between 30 and 35% of all fish is lost or wasted worldwide.The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 12.3 is focused on reducing global food loss and waste by half by 2030 (FAO, 2020).In this regard, nanotechnology is an alternative way to prevent loss.Nanoliposomes shield fish oils and their bioactive components, such as EPA and DHA, MUFA, PUFA from oxidation, and environmental factors like pH, temperature, and metal ions that cause or fasten oxidation, as can be observed from the study examples shown above.According to reports, nanoliposomes do not exhibit some of the restrictions that can occur with traditional techniques.With much fewer components that have antibacterial and antioxidant activities, the foods' oxidative stability is kept in addition to the bioactive components, and microbial deterioration is limited.Therefore, food waste can be avoided with the help of this application.

conclusion
As could be seen from the recently published studies, nanobiotechnology-based materials can provide a larger perspective for the food industry.Especially, nanofiber, nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, and currently nanoliposomes have been evaluated as promising approaches for the next generation.The mentioned bionanotechnology-based materials can provide food safety, higher nutritional values (nutritional quality indexes), and better taste in the samples raw or cooked.So, many studies should be improved.Also, as the authors note, in this situation, where famine is experienced intensely in some parts of the world and it is feared that famine could increase, it should not be underestimated that cost-effective, easy logistics and food safety-based nanobiotechnology-based products can be a solution to famine problems.Moreover, in this respect, the authors suggest that among the materials detailed in the text, particularly nanofibers consisting of bioactive materials, probiotic bacteria etc could be evaluated as a promising approach for providing food safety.