<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title> The progressive growth and spread of tumour cells in the form of metastases requires an interaction of healthy host cells, such as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and other cells of mesenchymal origin with immune cells taking part in innate and adaptive responses within the tumour lesion and entire body. The host cells interact with tumour cells to create a dynamic tumour microenvironment, in which healthy cells can both positively and negatively influence the growth and spread of the tumour. The balance of cellular homeostasis and the effect of substances they secrete on the tumour microenvironment determine whether the tumour has a tendency to grow or disappear, and whether the cells remain within the lesion or are capable of metastasis to other regions of the body. Intercellular interactions also determine the tumour’s susceptibility to radiation or other types of cancer treatment. They may also be a rational explanation for differences in treatment outcomes, in which some metastases regress and others progress in response to the same treatment method.</abstract>

Mechanisms of tumour escape from immune surveillance

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title> Current knowledge about the function of the reproductive tract and appropriate use of hormonal drugs affords control of the oestrus cycle of cows. One of the hormonal protocols is OvSynch, which enables artificial insemination (AI) to be performed at the precise optimum time without control of the ovaries and uterus. Use of such protocols in reproductive management allows oestrus cycles to be synchronised and cows to be effectively inseminated without oestrous detection, which is time-consuming and difficult in farms with numerous cows. Therefore, OvSynch has become the first management tool for AI and is an alternative method to heat detection. Over the 20 years since its first implementation, OvSynch has been modified many times to improve its reproduction outcomes and widen its use. Besides its original use for heat synchronisation, it is also used in many ovarian disorders as a therapeutic method. This review article describes the possibilities which OvSynch provides, its current modifications, various applications, and the advantages and disadvantages of its use in practice.</abstract>

OvSynch protocol and its modifications in the reproduction management of dairy cattle herds – an update

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title> Introduction: The article presents a rapid and simple analytical procedure for determination of four tetracyclines (oxytetracycline, tetracycline, chlortetracycline, and doxycycline) in animal medicated feedingstuffs. Material and Methods: Two-gramme samples were extracted by a Na2EDTA-McIlvaine buffer (pH 4)/methanol mixtures (40/60, v/v). The determination was achieved by liquid chromatography using a Zorbax Eclipse XDB C18 analytical column with mass spectrometer detection (LC-MS). Results: Recoveries of the antibiotics from spiked feed samples ranged from 78.2% to 113.5%. The LOD and LOQ for tetracyclines in feeds ranged from 2.8 to 4.2 and from 4.3 to 5.7 mg/kg, respectively. Conclusion: The method was successfully validated and proved to be efficient, precise, and useful for quantification of tetracyclines in medicated feedingstuffs.</abstract>

Analytical procedure for the determination of tetracyclines in medicated feedingstuffs by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title><bold>Introduction:</bold> Ornamental fish can suffer from different bacterial diseases. Among them the most prevalent are infections caused by <italic>Aeromonas, Shewanella, Citrobacter, Plesiomonas, Edwardsiella</italic>, and <italic>Pseudomonas.</italic> But there is a broad spectrum of rarely identified bacteria which may be causative agents of diseases. The aim of the study was to determine the species of bacteria pathogenic for fish which are prevalent in aquariums.<bold>Material and Methods:</bold> Bacteria were isolated from infected ornamental fish from pet shops and private aquariums in the Lublin region in 2015 and classified to species using MALDI-TOF MS.<bold>Results:</bold> A total of 182 isolates from ornamental fish were identified. The most frequent bacteria found in diseased fish were <italic>Aeromonas veronii</italic> (30.8% of total number of strains), <italic>A. hydrophila</italic> (18.7%), <italic>Shewanella putrefaciens</italic> (7.1%), <italic>Citrobacter freundii</italic> (7.1%), <italic>Pseudomona</italic>s spp. (7.1%), <italic>Shewanella baltica</italic> (4.9%), and <italic>Plesiomonas shigelloides</italic> (3.3%).<bold>Conclusion:</bold> Isolated bacterial species are facultative pathogens for fish and humans and may be isolated from fish without apparent symptoms of the disease.</abstract>

Bacterial flora associated with diseased freshwater ornamental fish

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
 High performance liquid chromatography method with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) was developed and optimised for the determination of tetracyclines (TCs) in medicated feedingstuffs. The extraction of the analyte from feedingstuffs was performed with Na2EDTA-McIlvaine buffer (pH 2.5 and pH 4). The extracts were cleaned up by solid phase extraction using octadecyl cartridges (C18). The samples were dried up and redissolved in the mixture of oxalic acid and methanol. Separation was performed on reserved phase column (Phenomenex C18, 250 x 4.6 mm, 5 μm) by multistep gradient elution, which provided better chromatographic separation. The analysis was performed at a wavelength of 390 nm. Validation study of the method revealed that all obtained calibration curves showed good linearity R= 0.9985 for doxycycline (DC) and R= 0.9981 for chlorotetracycline (CTC) over the range of 25-2,000 mg/kg. The analytical procedure was successfully adapted for quantitative determination of DC and CTC in medicated feedingstuff samples. Validation included determination of specificity, linearity, and repeatability. Mean recovery for spiked samples was 93.1% for CTC and 93.2% for DC. The results of validation of the analytical procedure proved that presented method is efficient, precise and useful for quantification of DC and CTC in medicated feedingstuffs.
</abstract>

Determination of Chlorotetracycline and Doxycycline in Medicated Feedingstuffs by Liquid Chromatography

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title><bold>Introduction:</bold> Iron and molybdenum are essential trace elements for cell metabolism. They are involved in maintaining proper functions of enzymes, cell proliferation, and metabolism of DNA.<bold>Material and Methods:</bold> BALB/3T3 and HepG2 cells were incubated with iron chloride or molybdenum trioxide at concentrations from 100 to 1,400 µM. The cells were also incubated in mixtures of iron chloride at 200 μM plus molybdenum trioxide at 1,000 μM or iron chloride at 1,000 μM plus molybdenum trioxide at 200 μM. Cell viability was determined with MTT reduction, LHD release, and NRU tests.<bold>Results:</bold> A decrease in cell viability was observed after incubating both cell lines with iron chloride or molybdenum trioxide. In cells incubated with mixtures of these trace elements, a decrease in cell viability was observed, assessed by all the used assays.<bold>Conclusions:</bold> Iron (III) and molybdenum (III) decrease cell viability in normal and cancer cells. A synergistic effect of the mixture of these elements was observed.</abstract>

Cytotoxicity of iron (III), molybdenum (III), and their mixtures in BALB/3T3 and HepG2 cells

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Introduction</title>
Rabies is endemic in Europe and red foxes are the vector and reservoir of the rabies virus (RABV). Based on classification established in the early 1990s, four variants of the rabies virus have been distinguished in Europe. Rabies broke out in January 2021 in the Mazowieckie voivodeship in central north-eastern Poland. The virus spread rapidly, reaching the Świętokrzyskie voivodeship in the central southern part and the Lubelskie voivodeship in the eastern part in the next months. Nine rabies cases were reported in the Podkarpackie voivodeship in south-eastern Poland between 2021 and 2023, mainly in red foxes but also in dogs and wildcat. The aim of the study was the identification of RABV variants in wildlife and domestic animals in Poland between 2021 and 2023.
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Material and Methods</title>
The study involved 157 animal brains tested positive for rabies using a fluorescent antibody test. From 10% w/v brain homogenates, RNA was isolated and full-length RABV genomes were high-throughput sequenced with an RABV-enriched approach. Complete genomes of RABV isolates were phylogenetically analysed and the variants were estimated.
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Results</title>
Molecular and phylogenetic studies revealed 147 (93.6%) of the RABV strains out of 157 which had rapidly spread in the wildlife of the Mazowieckie, Świętokrzyskie and Lubelskie voivodeships to be Central European strains. Nine RABVs (5.7%) detected in foxes, a wildcat and a dog in the Podkarpackie voivodeship were identified as North-Eastern European. A vaccine-induced rabies case was detected in a red fox in the Lubelskie voivodeship in May 2023.
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Conclusion</title>
Central European and North-Eastern European RABVs were circulating in Poland between 2021 and 2023.
</sec>
</abstract>

Determination of the rabies virus variants circulating in Poland in 2021–2023 and their phylogeny with analysis of the strains in the Mazowieckie and Podkarpackie voivodeships

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Introduction</title>
The aim of the study was to monitor the occurrence of selected vector-borne diseases in anaemic dogs arriving in or returning to Poland from areas endemic for these diseases.
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Material and Methods</title>
The study involved 497 dogs, of which 184 came to Poland from Ukraine with their owners fleeing the war. Other animals returned to the country from holidays spent in Croatia (n = 96), Turkey (n = 79), Italy (n = 48), Bulgaria (n = 42), Albania (n = 36) and Romania (n = 12). Molecular biology methods were used for detection of pathogens transmitted by the vectors.
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Results</title>
Molecular tests revealed the presence of vector-borne pathogens in 79 dogs. The most commonly diagnosed infection was caused by <italic>Babesia canis</italic> (27 dogs), followed by infections with <italic>Anaplasma phagocytophilum</italic> (in 20 dogs), <italic>Mycoplasma haemocanis</italic> (15 dogs), <italic>Bartonella henselae</italic> (7 dogs), <italic>Ehrlichia canis</italic> (4 dogs), <italic>Hepatozoon canis</italic> (3 dogs), <italic>Babesia gibsoni</italic> (2 dogs) and <italic>Leishmania infantum</italic> (1 dog). Most of the sick dogs (n = 39) came from Ukraine. In dogs spending holidays with their owners outside Poland, vector-borne diseases were most often detected after their return from Turkey (n = 16), and next in descending order from Croatia (n = 7), Italy (n = 6), Albania (n = 4), Bulgaria (n = 4) and Romania (n = 3).
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Conclusion</title>
The wider migration crisis and increasingly frequent trips of owners with their dogs to areas of endemic infectious and parasitic diseases observed in recent years are the main risk factors for the occurrence of these diseases in Poland. Therefore, constant monitoring of vector-borne diseases, especially in dogs returning from holidays and arriving in Poland from abroad, seems to be crucial for their early detection and introduction of appropriate therapy.
</sec>
</abstract>

Vector-borne diseases imported to Poland between 2021 and 2023

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Introduction</title>
This study focuses on perfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) content in chickens’ eggs and the livers of farm animals.
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Material and Methods</title>
Chickens’ eggs (n = 25) and the livers of cows (n = 10), chickens (n = 7) and horses (n = 3) were collected from various regions of Poland. Samples were analysed using the isotope dilution technique with liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Results</title>
The mean lower bound (LB) sum of four PFAS (∑4 PFAS) concentrations (perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) and perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS)) were the highest in cows’ livers (0.52 μg/kg) and much lower in chickens’ (0.17 μg/kg) and horses’ livers (0.13 μg/kg) and chickens’ eggs (0.096 μg/kg). The ratio of ∑4 PFASs to the limits set by Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915 was &lt;7% for liver and &lt;6% for eggs. Linear PFOS was the compound with the highest detection frequency (8% in eggs and 48% in all livers). In cows’ livers it was detected in 80% of samples. The estimated exposure to LB ∑4 PFASs <italic>via</italic> consumption of liver tissue from farm animals (assuming 50 g and 100 g portions) was &lt;52% of the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) for children and &lt;17% of the TWI for adults. Dietary intake <italic>via</italic> the average portion of three eggs led to low exposure of &lt;15% for children and &lt;5% for adults.
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Conclusion</title>
Neither eggs nor the livers of chickens or horses as analysed in this study are significant sources of PFASs, while cows’ livers might contribute significantly to a child’s overall dietary intake. Further investigation of PFOS in farm animal livers should be conducted.
</sec>
</abstract>

Chickens’ eggs and the livers of farm animals as sources of perfluoroalkyl substances

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Introduction</title>
The main adaptive immune cells are T and B lymphocytes and they play key roles in the induction of immune responses against canine mammary tumours. Investigating these cell subpopulations may lead to more precise diagnosis of these malignancies.
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Material and Methods</title>
The percentages of CD3+, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and of CD21+ B cells in the peripheral blood of bitches with malignant mammary tumours were compared with those in the blood of healthy animals. The phenotypic features of peripheral blood leukocytes were evaluated by flow cytometry.
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Results</title>
There was a significant difference in the mean percentages of CD3+ lymphocytes between healthy (66.7%) and metastatic dogs (46.1%), and between tumour-bearing non-metastatic (66.6%) and metastatic dogs. There was also a significant difference in CD4+ T helper cell percentages between healthy dogs (40.4%) and dogs with metastases (23.2%), and between the latter and dogs without them (35.5%). In the case of CD21+ lymphocyte subsets, a significant difference was noted between healthy animals (10.9%) and those with metastases (20.1%), and between the latter and patients without metastases (8.5%). There were also significant differences in CD3+/CD21+ ratios between the group with metastases (3.0), the healthy group (7.8), and the group without metastases (8.5). Similarly, a significant difference was noted in CD4+/CD8+ ratios between animals with metastases (1.4), bitches in the control group (2.2), and dogs without metastases (1.9).
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Conclusion</title>
Peripheral blood leukocyte phenotypic characteristics are putative novel biomarkers. These findings may be useful in future studies improving mammary tumour diagnostic procedures, especially in metastasis detection.
</sec>
</abstract>

The diagnostic value of selected immune parameters in peripheral blood of dogs with malignant mammary tumours – a preliminary study

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Introduction</title>
Chicken bones, a by-product of the poultry industry, can directly or indirectly enter the food chain. Bone meal and bone products could be sources of many contaminants. Considering the wide range of uses made of bones in the culinary and food industries, this material needs to be safe and antibiotic residue–free. To determine if such is the case, the concentration of doxycycline in chicken bones was investigated, this antimicrobial being one of the most commonly used in poultry production.
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Material and Methods</title>
Ross 308 broilers were grouped into three experimental and one control group. Doxycycline was administered in drinking water at therapeutic and sub-therapeutic doses, as well as <italic>via</italic> spray treatment. The concentration of doxycycline in bones was determined post slaughter by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry.
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Results</title>
Doxycycline was quantified at 135 μg/kg 22 days after the last day of antibiotic administration at therapeutic doses; 2,285 μg/kg after sub-therapeutic treatment for 27 days and 9.62 μg/kg 22 days after the end of spray application.
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Conclusion</title>
High concentrations and long persistence of doxycycline in bones were found in this study. Doxycycline can contaminate all bone-derived products in the food and fertiliser industries.
</sec>
</abstract>

Investigation of doxycycline residues in bones after oral administration to broiler chickens

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Introduction</title>
No maximum residue limits in honey have been legislated in the EU for antimicrobial substances such as sulphonamides, and they are not permitted, therefore, for treating honey bees unless in a cascade system. Since sulphonamides are used illegally in apiculture to treat foulbrood, their residues can be found in honey and other apiculture products, including beeswax. The study aimed to assess the contamination of honey from beeswax containing residues of 10 sulphonamides (sulphadimethoxine (SDM), sulphadoxine (SDX), sulphamonomethoxine (SMM), sulphamethoxazole (SMX), sulphameter (SMT), sulphamethazine (SMZ), sulphamerazine (SMR), sulphadiazine (SDA), sulphathiazole (STZ) and sulphacetamide (SCA)).
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Material and Methods</title>
Wax-based foundations fortified with 10 sulphonamides at 10,000 μg/kg were evaluated for sulphonamide concentrations and then placed in a beehive so that honey bees (<italic>Apis mellifera</italic> L.) could build honeycombs with them. Frames of capped honey were taken out of the hives one month later and honey was sampled from them. The honeycombs were subsequently incubated in a laboratory at 35°C for five months, and honey was sampled monthly. The honey sulphonamide concentrations were measured using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry and compared to the wax-based foundation concentrations.
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Results</title>
The maximum transfers to honey of the initial amount of SDM, SDX, SMM, SMX, SMT, SMZ, SMR, SDA, STZ and SCA in the wax-based foundations were 42.6, 34.3, 31.7, 30.1, 29.5, 25.2, 18.7, 16.1, 9.5 and 8.6%, respectively.
</sec>
<sec>
<title style='display:none'>Conclusion</title>
This study demonstrated that every tested sulphonamide could migrate from beeswax in antimicrobial-tainted honeycombs to honey, SDM having the highest migration potential and SCA the lowest.
</sec>
</abstract>

Comparison of transfer of different sulphonamides from contaminated beeswax to honey

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
Since 2007, African swine fever (ASF) has posed a serious threat to the European swine industry. In Poland, the numbers of reported outbreaks in pigs and affected areas grow every year. In 2018, the disease was noted in Western Europe, in Belgium specifically, where several hundred infected wild boars have been detected so far. In 2018, the virus unexpectedly emerged in pig holdings in eastern China, northern Mongolia, Vietnam, and Cambodia, causing worldwide concern about its further spread. Since there is still no vaccine available, the only approach to control the disease is biosecurity. Identification of potential sources of the virus is extremely important in light of its phenomenal survivability. The review summarises the current knowledge about ASFV survivability and resistance to environmental conditions, and discusses the role of indirect contact in spreading the disease.
</abstract>

African swine fever virus – persistence in different environmental conditions and the possibility of its indirect transmission

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>Coronaviruses (CoVs) are a large group of enveloped viruses with a single-strand RNA genome, which continuously circulate in mammals and birds and pose a threat to livestock, companion animals, and humans. CoVs harboured by avian species are classified to the genera gamma- and deltacoronaviruses. Within the gamma-CoVs the main representative is avian coronavirus, a taxonomic name which includes the highly contagious infectious bronchitis viruses (IBVs) in chickens and similar viruses infecting other domestic birds such as turkeys, guinea fowls, or quails. Additionally, IBVs have been detected in healthy wild birds, demonstrating that they may act as the vector between domestic and free-living birds. Moreover, CoVs other than IBVs, are identified in wild birds, which suggests that wild birds play a key role in the epidemiology of other gammaCoVs and deltaCoVs. Development of molecular techniques has significantly improved knowledge of the prevalence of CoVs in avian species. The methods adopted in monitoring studies of CoVs in different avian species are mainly based on detection of conservative regions within the viral replicase, nucleocapsid genes, and 3’UTR or 5’UTR. The purpose of this review is to summarise recent discoveries in the areas of epidemiology and diagnosis of CoVs in avian species and to understand the role of wild birds in the virus distribution.</abstract>

Coronaviruses in avian species – review with focus on epidemiology and diagnosis in wild birds

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a large, double-stranded DNA virus and the sole member of the <italic>Asfarviridae</italic> family. ASFV infects domestic pigs, wild boars, warthogs, and bush pigs, as well as soft ticks (<italic>Ornithodoros erraticus</italic>), which likely act as a vector. The major target is swine monocyte-macrophage cells. The virus can cause high fever, haemorrhagic lesions, cyanosis, anorexia, and even fatalities in domestic pigs. Currently, there is no vaccine and effective disease control strategies against its spread are culling infected pigs and maintaining high biosecurity standards. African swine fever (ASF) spread to Europe from Africa in the middle of the 20th century, and later also to South America and the Caribbean. Since then, ASF has spread more widely and thus is still a great challenge for swine breeding. The genome of ASFV ranges in length from about 170 to 193 kbp depending on the isolate and contains between 150 and 167 open reading frames (ORFs). The ASFV genome encodes 150 to 200 proteins, around 50 of them structural. The roles of virus structural proteins in viral infection have been described. These proteins, such as pp220, pp62, p72, p54, p30, and CD2v, serve as the major component of virus particles and have roles in attachment, entry, and replication. All studies on ASFV proteins lay a good foundation upon which to clarify the infection mechanism and develop vaccines and diagnosis methods. In this paper, the roles of ASFV structural proteins in viral infection are reviewed.</abstract>

Roles of African swine fever virus structural proteins in viral infection

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>Changes occurring in freshwater ecosystems seem to be fundamental in the development of all microorganisms, including those pathogenic to fish. This has been especially evident in recent years during which dynamic variations in bacterial fish pathology have been observed. Gram-negative bacteria commonly known to be pathogenic to fish, like <italic>Aeromonas</italic> spp., <italic>Flavobacterium</italic> spp., <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> spp., and <italic>Shewanella putrefaciens</italic> are replaced by other species, which until now have not been known to be virulent or even conditionally pathogenic to fish. Nowadays, among these other species <italic>Acinetobacter</italic> spp., <italic>Plesiomonas shigelloides</italic>, <italic>Sphingomonas paucimobilis</italic>, and <italic>Stenotrophomonas maltophilia</italic> are the most frequently isolated from fish exhibiting clinical signs of disease. Two Gram-positive bacteria have become pathogens of particular importance in fish pathology in Poland: <italic>Lactococcus garviae</italic> and <italic>Streptococcus iniae</italic>. In addition, infections caused by the Gram-positive bacterium <italic>Kocuria rhizophila</italic> have appeared in recent years. This bacterium has not been known until now to be pathogenic to fish. Therefore, this infection could be called an emergent disease.</abstract>

Contemporary threats of bacterial infections in freshwater fish

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
In 2015 in the European Union member states listeriosis caused 270 deaths. Food is the route of transmission in 99% of all human infection cases. Several studies from different countries have shown that the presence of <italic>Listeria monocytogenes</italic> in food can be as high as 58.3%. One of the most important ways to protect food from these microorganisms is to prevent the spread of the bacteria at processing plants at different stages of food production chain. The ability of <italic>L</italic>. <italic>monocytogenes</italic> to survive in extreme conditions and to form biofilms on various surfaces is a significant challenge for food safety. Removal of these bacteria from niches in processing plants is difficult and requires the use of sanitisers and precise equipment cleaning. The presence of <italic>L</italic>. <italic>monocytogenes</italic> in processing environment at slaughterhouses, deli meat factories or in retail may be a reason of cross-contamination. Proper hygienic systems applied by workers in food preparing places and knowledge about different routes of spreading of these bacteria may effectively decrease the risk of food contamination. Standardised legal regulations and control of meat product manufacture should be a fundamental way to protect food from <italic>L</italic>. <italic>monocytogenes</italic> contamination.
</abstract>

Ready-to-eat meat products as a source of <italic>Listeria monocytogenes</italic>

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>The aim of this paper is to give an overview of the presence of biogenic amines, particularly histamine, in various food products, discuss the most important factors influencing their accumulation, and address potential toxicity and safe limits in food. Biogenic amines are natural components of animal and plant raw materials, where they are present at concentrations appearing non-harmful to human health. Their increased content in foods results from the activity of endogenous enzymes or from the microbial decarboxylation of amino acids during controlled or spontaneous fermentation, processing, storage, and distribution. General knowledge of biogenic amines, factors favouring their formation and their safe limits in food are useful in preventing exposure to their toxic effects on the human body. Based on this information, appropriate prophylaxis can be applied, which will consist primarily of maintenance of good hygiene standards of raw materials and products, employment of appropriate processing procedures and upkeep of sanitary food storage conditions.</abstract>

Histamine and other biogenic amines in food

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