<abstract xml:lang="en"><title style='display:none'>Comparison of Values of Pearson's and Spearman's Correlation Coefficients on the Same Sets of Data</title>Spearman's rank correlation coefficient is a nonparametric (distribution-free) rank statistic proposed by Charles Spearman as a measure of the strength of an association between two variables. It is a measure of a monotone association that is used when the distribution of data makes Pearson's correlation coefficient undesirable or misleading. Spearman's coefficient is not a measure of the linear relationship between two variables, as some "statisticians" declare. It assesses how well an arbitrary monotonic function can describe a relationship between two variables, without making any assumptions about the frequency distribution of the variables. Unlike Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient, it does not require the assumption that the relationship between the variables is linear, nor does it require the variables to be measured on interval scales; it can be used for variables measured at the ordinal level. The idea of the paper is to compare the values of Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient and Spearman's rank correlation coefficient as well as their statistical significance for different sets of data (original - for Pearson's coefficient, and ranked data for Spearman's coefficient) describing regional indices of socio-economic development.</abstract>

Comparison of Values of Pearson's and Spearman's Correlation Coefficients on the Same Sets of Data

<abstract xml:lang="en"><title style='display:none'>Socio-Economic Development and its Axiological Aspects</title>The article presents notions and issues concerning socio-economic development in an axiological perspective. Their presentation is limited to those the present author considers valid, and ignores their wider context as expounded in the various theories of socio-economic development.Underlying the axiological approach to socio-economic development is the opinion that the character of and research on socio-economic development are not neutral axiologically because values are an inherent component of human activity; they stimulate it and give it a direction. The knowledge concerning human activity makes use of evaluative concepts and judgements.The article discusses: (1) the concept of socio-economic development, (2) basic axiological notions, and (3) axiological problems of socio-economic development.</abstract>

Socio-Economic Development and its Axiological Aspects

<abstract xml:lang="en"><title style='display:none'>Multiplier Effects in Local and Regional Development</title>The aim of the paper is to outline demand-driven multiplier mechanisms, the theory behind them, and applicable quantification methods (aggregate models and incremental methods). The authors discuss a number of key problems related to multiplier effects as fundamental mechanisms of local and regional development. The study of the magnitude, industry structure, spatial distribution, and key determinants of those effects can help understand growth mechanisms in local and regional economies and evaluate the advantages and disadvantages associated with new, e.g. foreign, investment. Furthermore, the results of earlier empirical studies of the magnitude, spatial distribution and determinants of multiplier effects are presented together with the outcomes of the authors' own study.</abstract>

Multiplier Effects in Local and Regional Development

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>A<sc>bstract</sc></title>
The main goal of the article is to present the morphological changes that occurred in the Old Town of Wrocław in the post-war period. Morphological transformation is a natural process that shapes the external and the internal structure of a city. The damage inflicted during World War II interrupted the natural development of the burgage cycle and deeply altered the landscape of the city. Through the analysis of building coverage within street blocks, a classification of street blocks was obtained. On this basis, eight areas that underwent analogous phases of the burgage cycle in particular blocks were distinguished; this made it possible to identify the processes that can affect changes in morphology. The main analysis of the study was conducted using cartographic materials from 1934 to 2019 (through Conzenian methods), which visualised the distribution of buildings within street blocks.
</abstract>

Morphological Transformations of the Old Town in Wrocław

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title> Transport is a very important part of activities in the tourism sector. In addition to the transport of tourists to and within a destination, transport itself can be a tourist attraction. The aim of this paper is to analyse selected problems of railways in Slovakia (a decrease in the importance of railways for passenger transport in Slovakia in the past 20 years, discontinued passenger transport on certain railway tracks and the modernisation of other tracks, and zero-fare public rail transport services for certain categories of passengers), and to present good examples of the use of narrow-gauge railways for the purposes of tourism (the Tatra Electric Railways and the Kysuce-Orava Forest Railway).</abstract>

Role of Railway Transport in Tourism: Selected Problems and Examples in Slovakia

<abstract xml:lang="en"><title style='display:none'>Ground Water in the City of Varanasi, India: present status and prospects</title>The city of Varanasi is short of water. The city obtains a total of 270 million litres water from the river Ganga and tubewells. Yet every fifth citizen lacks drinking water. The ground water is polluted due to nitrate and faecal coliform. A further problem is the plan to settle the growing population in a new township nearby under the integrated development plan of Greater Varanasi, a part of the Jawajarlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission. To fulfill the growing demand of fresh water, new water bearing horizon of the most affected part of the city i.e. southern part is to be identified. This paper reports a study of the variation in the grain size attributes of an aquifer material taken from different depths from the affected region in order to establish the generalized hydrological properties and recommend the depth of the well accordingly. From the grain size analysis and hydrological study it may be concluded that water bearing zones are mainly found in three horizons at the depths 44-56 m; 56-87 m; and 87-165 m. The third water bearing horizon (total thickness being 78 m) can act as a good potential ground water horizon for a new township. Due to its greater depth, the water would be relatively fresh being characterized by very low concentration of dissolved solids. Therefore, this horizon is strongly recommended for utilizing the water resource for the township.</abstract>

Ground Water in the City of Varanasi, India: present status and prospects

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>A<sc>bstract</sc></title>
Further global warming is projected to increase coastal erosion. Therefore, coastal protection is being intensified with a strong emphasis placed on environmental biotechniques. One such activity is anti-erosion planting using alien plant species. The aliens penetrate from the plant species into the natural ecosystems, reducing their biodiversity and ecosystem services. Parallel to coastal protection, measures for nature conservation are undertaken to eliminate invasive aliens from the natural ecosystems that take over. Such actions are featured in the master plans drafted for the Natura 2000 sites on the south Baltic coast. Although there is no sufficient scientific evidence, <italic>Salix acutifolia</italic> willow used in anti-erosion plantings was considered a neophyte invading white and grey dune habitats and reducing their biodiversity. The master plans mandated the elimination of the willow without considering the role of its spontaneous locations in providing erosion-control services. In 2017–2023, research was undertaken on the south Baltic coast (Wolin Island) on the arguments behind such a radical conservation action. We present the results of these studies. We consider the elimination of <italic>S. acutifolia</italic> from its spontaneous locations as a reduction in both its erosion-control services and the willow’s role in nature conservation. We present some principles for action in case of a conflict between coast protection and nature conservation.
</abstract>

Erosion Control Ecosystem Service Provided by <italic>Salix Acutifolia</italic> Willd. Neophyte on the South Baltic Coast: Insights from Wolin Island, Poland

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>A<sc>bstract</sc></title>
Collecting opinions regarding environmental management is essential, particularly in urban areas where space is limited, and interests often collide. However, the impact of the conditions in which the research is conducted on opinions and preferences elicited via surveys and interviews about the environment is usually taken for granted. The recent development of computer-aided survey methods allows a simulation of an environment, which can create an artificial environment for interviews. Therefore, examining whether direct access to the environment impacts opinions and preferences becomes a significant issue when considering environmental policies and management design and execution. This study examines whether the location of an interview, indoors or outdoors (in the vicinity of trees), influences the opinion on the ecosystem services (ES) trees provide. A quasi-experimental method with a map-aided computer-assisted personal interview (CAPI) survey in two Polish cities, indoors and outdoors, in the vicinity of trees, shows that respondents’ location did not significantly affect the opinion on the ES provided by trees. However, on average, respondents answering the survey inside buildings marked more trees on a map than those answering outside. We argue that although an interview location does not have a significant impact on the results, from the perspective of various stakeholder groups in participatory processes, the convenience of place is more important than the character of the place (i.e., in the vicinity of trees) as long as the survey method is mediated by a virtual representation of the subject of the study.
</abstract>

Influence of an Interview Location on Opinions About the Ecosystem Services Provided by Trees

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>A<sc>bstract</sc></title>
Knowledge and human capital are gaining importance as determinants of urban and regional development on a global scale. We can observe a simultaneous increase in the mobility of human capital, the availability of knowledge, and an increase in the importance of location. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as glocalisation. Mobile and highly valuable human capital are being territorialised. From the city’s point of view, is this an opportunity or a threat? The question can be asked whether the territorialisation of human capital has an impact on the durability of urban development. It is not obvious whether it helps to develop competitive potential and competitive advantages of an area only temporarily or in the long term. An analysis using elements of the path dependency theory can provide answers to these questions. It considers both the complexity of the research subject and the evolutionary nature of development processes. Therefore, the fundamental question of this article is whether the territorialisation of human capital affects the durability of urban development. The main findings of the study show that both the size of a city and the rate of demographic growth affect the choice of the type of development path. Cities with high demographic growth rates and complex development strategies enter reactive paths. This type of path guarantees the durability of development processes.
</abstract>

The Territorial Nature and Power of Human Capital in Urban Development Processes from the Perspective of the Path Dependence Concept

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>A<sc>bstract</sc></title>
Female-based urban poverty has been a widely researched topic fitting into the pursuit of gender equality since the Beijing 1995 Conference for Women. However, the criteria for measuring female-based urban poverty assume a direct role in reducing various urban poverty manifestations amongst females. Nevertheless, standard domains such as economic and educational statuses show some noticeable characteristics in smaller townships located in the low-urbanised states of India. The city under concern — Sehore Municipal Council (M.C. hereafter) — furnishes an example of an emerging urban area in a low-urbanised state of Madhya Pradesh (27.6% of the urban population compared to the national average of 31.16%) where domain-wise spatial manifestations of female-based urban poverty are noticeable. In addition to the financial aspect of urban poverty, the study attempts to identify local area determinants related to the socio-economic and the cultural environment of Sehore M.C., using standard variables and indicators for the spatial manifestation of female-based urban poverty through a GIS-based multi-criteria decision-making technique of the analytical hierarchy process (AHP). Female-based urban poverty in Sehore M.C., lying within the urban sphere of influence of two metro cities of Bhopal and Indore, is analysed across six domains of economic, educational, social, health, lack of decision-making and time poverty, for 17 selected localities across four wards. Out of the six selected domains, the economic poverty domain turns out to be the strongest, while time poverty is the least dominant. The present model of female-based urban poverty may apply to similar newly urbanising areas falling within the ambit of metro cities in India.
</abstract>

Female-Based Urban Poverty in Parts of Sehore City, India

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>A<sc>bstract</sc></title>
The goal of this article is to uncover the innovative changes that have emerged in Tourist Information Centres (TICs) in Lithuania as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. The article is based on the assessment of primary research data collected through completed in-depth questionnaires. The research results revealed that a significant number of TICs transformed their activities while adapting them to local tourists. TICs introduced new products, attractions, and services, updated webpages and mobile applications, and created online souvenir shops. The research results indicated that, because of the lockdown, some state tourism institutions in the regions, along with local service providers, experienced a ‘renaissance’ and a successful period. New products and services were essential for the tourism sector’s survival, and the majority of them continue to be used in the post-COVID reality, providing opportunities for greater resilience and reduced dependence on unexpected circumstances in the future. This article addresses discussion points related to general changes in tourism services in the context of resilience and the application of innovations. Additionally, the article introduces the concept of <italic>Re-tourism</italic>, which adds value to the development of the theoretical framework for post-COVID tourism.
</abstract>

Navigating Tourism Innovations in the Post-COVID-19 Era: A Case Study of Lithuania

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>A<sc>bstract</sc></title>
The aim of the study is to examine the regional impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and its individual waves on foreign trade in food and agro-based products in the world’s largest trading countries. The study was based on the statistical database of the International Trade Centre (ITC). In addition to the basic analysis, use was made of the auto-correlation method to detect special relationships between foreign food trade of different countries. The results show that the pandemic has had the greatest impact on agricultural and food trade in the United States, but it has spilled over to other countries as well, especially its two major trading partners, the European Union and China. Food trade stagnated in the initial period of the pandemic, but later recovered relatively well. The six examined regions can be divided into three groups based on the typical features of their autocorrelation.
</abstract>

International Trade in Food and Agro-Based Products in the Time of COVID-19

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>Urbanization is a global phenomenon and currently more than half of the world’s population lives in urban areas. Studies on geomorphological heritage and the development of specific methods of investigation (assessment, inventories, cartography) are, however, relatively rare and limited. This paper first describes the relationships between urbanization and geomorphology. Secondly, it presents an overview of the main works on the urban geomorphological heritage. Then, the main methods of investigation are presented. Finally, we discuss the challenging issues concerning the protection and the promotion of the urban geomorphological heritage.</abstract>

Urban Geomorphological Heritage. An Overview

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>Especially since the Fukushima nuclear catastrophe (2011), Germany has expanded its renewably sourced energies. Nuclear power is to be phased out by 2022. What is central to federal policy is the expansion of wind-generated energy. Plans for new wind farms have, however, faced opposition. And the transportation of electricity from the windy north to the high-use south entails an expansion of the existing power grid, which also provokes conflict. The article scrutinises dominant patterns of discourse on these issues. Based on current discourse theory, the research sheds light on the argumentative power of citizens’ initiatives with respect to nature conservation, landscape, health and economics.</abstract>

Conflicts around Germany’s <italic>Energiewende</italic>: Discourse patterns of citizens’ initiatives

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract.</title>
 Early definitions of <italic>geotourism </italic>stressed tourism related to geology and geomorphology, though some drifted into other concepts such as education, sustainability, conservation and more. Later definitions, largely fostered by National Geographic<italic>, </italic>treat the topic as related to geography, or more simply place, and concentrate on the extraneous topics such as sustainability, conservation and so forth which should be part of any form of tourism. The earth science community is liable to lose its influence on creation and interpretation of geosites and related topics because the concept has been broadened to include everything. <italic>Geodiversity </italic>is a copy-cat adaptation of biodiversity, but while biodiversity might be a measure of the health of an ecosystem, the value of geological and geomorphic sites does not depend on diversity. Many geological and geomorphic features are restricted to a single rock or feature, which enhances their value. Geodiversity might be useful as a way of recording diverse features within a given area, but it should not be treated as a value-judgement on the significance of individual sites. The whole area of geoheritage is under threat from the redefinition of geotourism, and the mis-application of the concept of geodiversity
</abstract>

Problems of geotourism and geodiversity

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>Demnate commune and High-Tessaout valley are located in the Moroccan central High-Atlas. They have a great and much diversified geological and geomorphological heritage and exceptional landscapes of high mountains. The data obtained from the current work indicate that the studied area present high tourist vocation, in the fact that this territory preserves a large number of geosites linked to many witnesses fossils of extinct animals such dinosaurs footprints, outcropping rock formations of the Precambrian and Mesozoic. Further, it has many remarkable landforms and geosites such as canyons, natural bridge, spectacular waterfalls and scree slopes. The findings support that the area attracts many tourists every year. However, this number remains restricted due to the lack of tools of promotion and mediation of its geoheritage and also due to the low exploitation of the geodiversity. Regarding this situation, geotouristic routes represented on touristic map appear as an essential tool for geotourism promotion and as an efficient means of geosciences popularisation. This paper illustrates three geotouristic routes describing the main geosites in rural areas of Demnate and High-Tessaout valley. These geotourism itineraries can help to explain the high potential interest of the studied areas in geotourism terms.</abstract>

Mapping Geosites as Gateways to the Geotourism Management in Central High-Atlas (Morocco)

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>The Padma river is widely known for its dynamic and disastrous behaviour, and the river has been experiencing intense and frequent bank erosion and deposition leading to the changes and shifting of bank line. In this paper, a time series of Landsat satellite imagery MSS, TM and OLI and TIRS images and are used to detect river bank erosion-accretion and bank line shifting during the study period 1975–2015. This study exhibits a drastic increase of erosion and accretion of land along the Padma river. The results show that from 1975 to 2015, the total amount of river bank erosion is 49,951 ha of land, at a rate of 1,249 ha a−1 and the total amount of accretion is 83,333 ha of land, at a rate of 2,083 ha a−1. Throughout the monitoring period, erosion-accretion was more pronounced in the right part of the river and bank line had been shifting towards the southern direction. The paper also reveals that the total area of islands had been increased significantly, in 2015 there was about 50,967 ha of island area increased from 20,533 ha of island area in 1975, and the results evidence consistency of sedimentation in the river bed.</abstract>

Mapping and Monitoring Erosion-Accretion in an Alluvial River Using Satellite Imagery – The River Bank Changes of the Padma River in Bangladesh

<abstract>
 <title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
 The paper presents the outcomes of the uncertainty investigation of a long-term forest cover change analysis in the Polish Carpathians (nearly 20,000 km2) and Swiss Alps (nearly 10,000 km2) based on topographic maps. Following Leyk et al. (2005) all possible uncertainties are grouped into three domains - production-oriented, transformation- oriented and application-oriented. We show typical examples for each uncertainty domain, encountered during the forest cover change analysis and discuss consequences for change detection. Finally, a proposal for reliability assessment is presented.
 </abstract>

Institute of Geography and Spatial Management, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Poland

Research Unit Landscape Dynamics, Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland

Uncertainty in Historical Land-Use Reconstructions with Topographic Maps

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Quaestiones Geographicae

The Journal of Adam Mickiewicz University

Quaestiones Geographicae was established in 1974 as an annual journal of the Institute of Geography, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland. Its founder and first editor was Professor Stefan...

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Quaestiones Geographicae was established in 1974 as an annual journal of the Institute of Geography, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland. Its founder...